Life Skills Development/Unit Six
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1. PEDAGOGICAL TEMPLATES FOR US TO USE - NOTE THE ONE ON REFLECTIONS
2. FLEXIBLE UNIT CREATION
3. SKILLS IN LIFE SKILLS
1. PEDAGOGICAL TEMPLATES FOR US TO USE - NOTE THE ONE ON REFLECTIONS
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The exampleIN HELP AND THEN PEDAGOGICAL TEMPLATES ON THE RIGHT.
Preknowledge Think about a situation when you ....type the rest of your preknowlege text here
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Definition teacher
2. FLEXIBLE UNIT CREATION
- [[Template can be modified to suit Life Skills. Reflecting during and at the end of activities, Journalling in the Portfolio, and interaction including discussion, are essential activities in Life Skills development:
Unit X Introduction/ Rationale
Outcomes/Objectives
Definitions
Topic 1
Reflection to look into self relating of the unit
Content written to the learner
Activity that includes one or more of the skils of LIfe Skills (see below)
Summary
Assessment - self, peer and /or tutor
Topic 2
Reflection to look into self relating of the unit
Content written to the learner
Activity that includes one or more of the skils of LIfe Skills (see below)
Summary
Assessment - self, peer and /or tutor
3. SKILLS IN LIFE SKILLS
APPENDIX
DEFINITION OF THE SKILLS IN LIFE SKILLS
(1) DECISION MAKING : The ability to choose a course of action from a number of options which may result in a specific outcome or involve the decision to adopt a specific behaviour path.
D : Determine the question.
What is the question that needs to be answered?
E : Examine the choices. What are the possible choices?
C : Collect Information. Weigh the choice versus consequence.
I : Investigate consequences. State reasons for and against each choice.
D : Decide. Make the best choice.
E : Evaluate. Did you make the right decision?
(2) PROBLEM SOLVING : The process through which a situation/problem is resolved through the process of a number of steps.
STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING:-
(1) Problem Sensing. (2) Define Problem. (3) Setting Objectives. (4) Generating Alternatives. (5) Evaluating Alternatives. (6) Choosing an Alternative. (7) Taking Action. (8) Evaluating the Process and Outcome. (9) Generalizing the Action.
(3) CREATIVE THINKING
Creative thinking is the ability to depart from traditional ways of thinking, resulting in the generation of original and innovative ideas that enable us to respond adaptively to life situations.
A creative individual is said to be independent, perceptive, open minded, objective and possesses self-control, varied interests and high aspirations and is therefore capable of creative thought.
STEPS IN CREATIVE THINKING FOR THE INDIVIDUAL:-
(1) Establish the idea or perspective taken. (2) Redefine the problem from several perspectives. (3) List all solutions to the problem, being as imaginative as possible. (4) Delay evaluation until all possible alternatives have been listed in an effort to prevent counterproductive thinking. (5) Make decision.
STEPS IN CREATIVE THINKING FOR GROUPS USING “GROUP THINK”:-
(1) Brainstorm, encouraging imaginative speculation. (2) Clarify ideas presented. (3) Suggest modifications. (4) Select best suggestion.
OR
(1) Individuals generate ideas silently and note them. (2) The leader obtains and records each member’s ideas. (3) The group discusses and evaluates the recorded ideas. (4) Individuals cast silent votes to determine best suggestion.
Example:
You are attempting to redesign a ball point pen:
List the present characteristics of the pen. Generate a new set of characteristics. Evaluate various combinations of characteristics until all are exhausted. Decide on final design.
(4) CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information and experience, formulate ideas, derive conclusions, ask pertinent questions and present logical arguments.
The critical thinking activity focuses on the thought process rather than on taking action. It contributes to health by helping us to recognize and assess the factors that influence attitudes and behaviour, such as media and peer pressure influence.
CRITICAL THINKING REQUIRES THAT AN INDIVIDUAL HAS THE SKILL TO:-
ANALYZE DETERMINE IDENTIFY DETECT DISTINGUISH.
STEPS IN THE CRITICAL THINKING PROCESS:-
(1) Exploration to gain insight. (2) Expression to make opinions known. (3) Investigation to verify accuracy, credibility. (4) Ideation to generate options. (5) Evaluation of ideas to identify what to believe and/or do.
(5) EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Effective communication is the ability to express ourselves, both verbally and non-verbally, in ways that are appropriate to our cultures and situations. It allows not only for the transfer of information but also of understanding and emotion from one person to another in such a way that one’s intent is made clear.
The communication process can be:-
(1) Verbal – use of oral and written symbols. (2) Non verbal – gestures, movement, material things, time and space.
The communication process involves:-
THE THE
SENDER RECEIVER
Detractors – unclear thought
– inaccurate reception – ambiguous symbols – faulty decoding
– obstructed understanding or fear
HOW TO OVERCOME BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION?
(1) The sender must clarify what is to be transmitted and its purpose. (2) Encoding and decoding must be done with symbols that are understood by both sender and receiver. (3) The message should fit the receiver’s frame of reference. (4) Use the appropriate channel for the type of message being sent. (5) Consider the needs of the receiver. Communicate something that is of value. (6) Ensure congruence between what is said and how it is said. (7) Communicate in an environment of honesty, trust, confidence and support. (8) Listen carefully. Patience, empathy and concentration enhance understanding. (9) Elicit/give honest feedback to ensure the message is understood.
(6) EMPATHY : The ability to imagine what life is like for another person, even in a situation that we are unfamiliar with.
There are two (2) stages in empathizing:-
(1) Feeling with the other person. Experiencing the same feelings of frustration, anger or pain as the other person. Both parties share emotions and arrive at a mutual understanding, closeness and trust.
(2) Putting one’s self in the other person’s place. One mirrors the other person’s feelings and communicates these. This allows the person to get a more objective view of his situation.
(7) : The ability to relate positively with people, creating an environment in which people feel secure and free to interact and express their opinions.
Five (5) factors which make for good interpersonal relationships are:-
(1) Respect – holding people in high regard. (2) Dependability – being responsible and fulfilling one’s obligations. (3) Empathy – being able to put one’s self in the other person’s position. (4) Effort – working hard to make the relationship succeed. (5) Caring – showing concern for and interest in the other person’s feelings, wants and needs.
(8) SELF-AWARENESS : Having a sense of identity and an
understanding of our own feelings, beliefs,
attitudes, values, goals, motivations and
behaviours.
Research suggests that there are two (2) types of self-awareness:-
(1) Private self-awareness – attention to our own thoughts and feelings. We are in touch with the covert aspects of ourselves such as moods, motives, mental processes and desires.
(2) Public self-awareness – attention to ourselves as social beings. We are aware of our observable behaviours and visible physical characteristics, those things that can be seen by others.
Steps in increasing self-awareness:-
(1) Monitor your interactions – Observe your interactions. (2) Identify patterns in your observed behaviour – What are the consistent behaviours? (3) Determine the meaning of behavioural patterns – Decide what the patterns say about you. (4) Analyze the effect of behavioural patterns – Do they make you happy or sad? Do they allow you to achieve your goal? (5) Explore the value systems inherent in your behavioural patterns – What beliefs do they reflect? (6) Implement new insights – change your behaviour based on your new self-awareness.
(9) COPING WITH EMOTIONS : The ability to recognize a range of feelings in ourselves and others, the awareness of how emotions influence behaviour, and the ability to respond to emotions appropriately.
There are two (2) main ways of coping with emotions. One is problem oriented and the other emotion oriented.
(1) Problem Centred Approach a. Analyze the emotional situation. b. Take action to change or avoid the emotional situation.
(2) The Emotion Centred Approach a. Adopt some defense mechanism (self-deception) or b. Deaden the emotion by use of alcohol or drugs.
(10) COPING WITH STRESS : The ability to recognize the sources of stress in
our lives and the effects that stress produces,
and the ability to act in ways that help us cope or reduce our levels of stress.
There are three (3) basic steps in coping with stress.
(1) Awareness - one must understand one’s self, what is happening (sensations in body, thoughts, emotions) and whether the stress originates from conflicts within, from imbalance in one’s life or from environmental circumstances beyond one’s immediate control.
(2) Acceptance - acknowledging that what one has become aware of is stress.
(3) Adjustment – altering perceptions, behaviour, lifestyle or personal situation in order to cope effectively with the stress. For example, be more assertive, vent anger and frustration constructively, get adequate rest and sleep, eat properly, exercise and learn relaxation techniques, build job related and interpersonal skills, seek support or counseling.
1. What is Stress?
A stressor is anything that throws a body out of its normal state. When stressed, the whole physical, mental and emotional system is under constant ‘red-alert’, and over time this can cause chronic worry, anxiety, exhaustion, headaches, and can even lead to life-threatening illnesses such as strokes or heart attacks. Stressors trigger an increase in the release of stored energy to provide the body more power and stamina, increase in blood flow carrying oxygen to the brain, dilation of the pupils to allow more light to enter the eyes, increase in perspiration, increase in heart rate and blood pressure, and decrease in the digestion process.
If we feel stressed during our working day, adrenaline - which causes the brain to be in a state of excitation – remains in our system for many hours or even days afterwards, and as a result we are likely to have less patience than usual. Outside of work we therefore may be more prone to anger or irritation than we otherwise would be.
What are the effects of stress on your thoughts, feelings and Behaviour? Stress can over stimulate the mind, eventually causing mental blocks or, conversely, an overactive mind, with little or no control over persistent unwanted thoughts, and an endless stream of worry for no reason. It affects us emotionally because we can lose control of our anger and react irrationally, and this may eventually damage relationships. It is easy to see someone’s performance suffer when they are under stress, thus making them much less efficient. Effects of stress On your body On your thoughts and feelings On your Behaviour Headache Anxiety Overeating or loss of appetite Chest Pain Restlessness Decreased anger control marked by sudden outbursts with little provocation Pounding Heart Worrying Increased use of alcohol and drugs High Blood Pressure Irritability Increased smoking Shortness of breath Depression Withdrawal or isolation Muscle aches, such as back and neck pain Sadness Crying spells Clenched Jaws Anger Changes in close relationships Grinding teeth Mood swings Job dissatisfaction Tight, dry throat Feeling of insecurity Decreased productivity Indigestion Lack of concentration Burnout Constipation or diarrhoea Confusion Stomach Cramping or Bloating Forgetfulness Increased perspiration, often causing cold, sweaty hands Resentment Fatigue Tendency to blame others for how you feel Insomnia Guilt Weight gain or loss Tendency to see only the negative aspects of people and situations Diminished sex drive Skin problems, such as hives
What is the “Fight or Flight” response? The fight or flight response, also called the “acute stress response,” was first described by Walter Cannon in 1929. The theory states that animals react to threats with a general discharge of the sympathetic nervous system. The response was later recognised as the first stage of a general adaptation syndrome that regulates stress responses among vertebrates and other organisms. In layman’s terms an animal has two options when faced with danger. They can either face the threat (“fight”), or they can avoid the threat (“flight). The onset of a stress response is associated with specific physiological actions in the sympathetic nervous system, both directly and indirectly through the release of epinephrine and to a lesser extent nor epinephrine from the medulla of the adrenal glands. The release is triggered by acetylcholine released from pre ganglionic sympathetic nerves. These catecholamine hormones facilitate immediate physical reactions by triggering increases in heart rate and breathing, constricting blood vessels in many parts of the body – but not in muscles (vasodilation), brain, lungs and heart (increasing blood supply to organs involved in the flight) – and tightening muscles. An abundance of catecholamines at neuroreceptor sites facilitates reliance on spontaneous or intuitive behaviours often related to combat or escape. Normally, when a person is in a serene, unstimulated state, the “firing” of neurones in the locus ceruleus is minimal. A novel stimulus, once perceived, is relayed from the sensory cortex of the brain through the thalamus to the brain stem. That route of signalling increases the rate of noradrenergic activity in the locus ceruleus, and the person becomes alert and attentive to the environment. If a stimulus is perceived as a threat, a more intense and prolonged discharge of the locus ceruleus activates the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system (Thase & Howland, 1995). The activation of the sympathetic nervous system leads to the release of nor epinephrine from nerve endings acting on the heart, blood vessels, respiratory centres, and other sites. The ensuing physiological changes constitute a major part of the acute stress response. The other major player in the acute stress response is the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. What are some behavioural patterns resulting from stress? Stress can change a person’s pattern of behaviour leading to emotional flatness / emotional numbing, anxiety, distance, withdrawal from social interactions, lives of quiet desperation, extreme lethargy, increasing dependence on the structure and procedures of the institution to initiate and organise their behaviour. In extreme cases, Prisoner apathy and loss of the capacity to initiate behaviour on one’s own approximates the symptoms of clinical depression.
“Although individuals vary in their ability to adjust to differing degrees of stress, subjection to prolonged, extreme stress results in the development of ‘neurotic’ symptoms in virtually every person exposed to it…”
C.F. Hockings review of the psychological consequences of exposure to “extreme” stress. F. Hocking, Extreme Environmental Stress and its significance for Psychopathology, 24 American Journal of Psychotherapy 4-26 (1970):
For women inmates separation from loved ones was the most commonly reported stressor of incarceration – the struggle to maintain intact families, effort to sustain their parental role, and dealing with unresolved conflicting relationships. What is Coping? Folkman and Lazarus have defined coping as “…the cognitive and behavioural efforts made to master, tolerate, or reduce external and internal demands and conflicts among them.” (1980, pg. 223). In a sense, it is a form of adaptation. They also suggest that coping efforts serve two main functions: The management of the source of stress and the regulation of stressful emotions. This leads to the break down of coping into two main styles. Problem-focussed coping This coping style is aimed at problem-solving or actively doing something to alter the source of the stress. This coping style is most often used when people feel that something can be done about the stressor. Sub-categories include: • Active coping – where a person takes active steps to attempt to eliminate or reduce the effects of the stressor. • Planning – when a person uses planning strategies, that person is thinking about how to cope with the stressor. In a sense this is a form of secondary appraisal rather than coping itself. • Suppression of competing activities – a person will put other projects aside which may act as distractions, in order to better deal with the stressor. • Restraint coping – a person waits until an appropriate opportunity to act. • Seeking social support for instrumental reasons – when people seek others for advice, assistance or information. Emotion-focussed coping This style deals with reducing or managing the emotional distress that results from the stressor. This coping style is more often employed when people feel that a stressor is simply something which must be endured. Sub-categories include: • Seeking social support for emotional reasons – moral support, sympathy, and understanding. • Positive reinterpretation – a person views a stressor in more positive terms, or looks on the bright side. • Denial – a person denies the reality of a stressful event. • Acceptance – when people accept the reality and seek help to be able to cope. Are these the only methods people use for coping? Carver, Scheier, and Weintraub (1989) also argue that people have dysfunctional ways of coping, which they separate from both problem-focussed and emotion-focussed coping, these are: • Venting – in which people deeply concentrate on and vent their emotions. • Behavioural disengagement – involves a sense of helplessness, when people just give up. • Mental disengagement – in which people attempt to distract themselves from the stressor through acts such as sleeping, daydreaming, or abusing drugs or alcohol. Do all people employ the same coping styles? • Pearlin and Schooler (1978) and Kessler (1979) found that overall, females are more vulnerable to stressful circumstances than are males. In dealing with such stressful situations, women are more likely to avoid confrontation, accept personal blame and rely on social support networks (Labouvie-Vief, Hakim-Larson and Hobart, 1987). • In a study by McGown and Fraser (1995) which utilized a sample of individuals with physical or sensory disabilities, it was found that males make significantly more use of active-cognitive coping than females. • Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley, and Novacek (1987) found that men tended to keep their feelings to themselves more than women, and that women used more positive reappraisal • McCrae (1982) found middle-aged and older individuals were less likely than younger individuals to rely on hostile reactions or escapist fantasy to deal with stress. • In a study by Folkman, Lazarus, Pimley and Novacek (1987), it was found that younger individuals used more active, interpersonal, problem-focussed forms of coping whereas older individuals used more passive, intrapersonal emotion-focussed forms of coping. • Leventhal, Suls and Leventhal (1993) found that middle-aged individuals tend to use more avoidance and delay in coping with stress, which they suggest may be due to risk aversion due to biological decline. For instance it has been found that bitterness and expression of demoralization by the prison environment were most evident by a group of inmates who had served the shortest length of time. Also, a similar group of inmates having served the least amount of time showed a pattern of greater distress on measures of anxiety, depression and hopelessness (Sapsford, 1983) • Silverman and Vega (1990) found that intensity of male and female inmates’ anger in response to stress decreased with age, along with an increase in suppression or control of anger. These findings may suggest that inmates are better able to adjust to their environment with time, as measured by symptoms of distress. • Zamble and Porporino (1998) have found that over time, inmates tend to cope by withdrawing from social contact or activities. There is an increase in the amount of passive behaviours, such as watching television or listening to music throughout the first three to four months. They also increase their amount of inner-directed hostility (Heskin, 1974). However, after learning the “rules” of the prison, inmates begin to feel an increased sense of control. (Zamble and Porporino, 1998). • With aging they also gain experience and they know how to get things done for themselves, as well as what to expect from officers. This perspective results in the inmate staying out of trouble and using his or her time more profitably • In response to stress, Silverman and Vega (1990) found that female inmates controlled their anger significantly more than males who were more prone to direct their anger outward. Jones (1988) has found that female inmates tend to organise into relatively enduring primary relationships in order to cope with their stress, such as friendships, romantic relationships, and groups which resemble a family structure. • Mann (1984) has also found that female inmates often form family systems within the prison. Specifically with other inmates with which they have become close. This is a response to loneliness, and can help to create a sense of belonging, security, emotional support, and help to reduce preoccupations with the outside world. • Negy, Woods and Carlson (1997) hypothesized that for female inmates, strategies which attempt to manage the emotional distress rather than the actual stressor will work best since the inmate is often unable to change many facets of her environment. However, they found that both types of coping resulted in better adjustment. • Silverman and Vega (1990) found that male and female inmates who are single scored higher on measures related to the expression of anger, and scored lower on anger control measures than married inmates. • Females with higher numbers of children are more likely to utilize planning strategies, as well as turning to spirituality, than are female inmates with fewer children. They are also less likely to use behavioural disengagement than inmates with fewer children. It could be hypothesised that the act of parenting may in some way affect which coping strategies a woman uses in various situations. Also, out of concern for their children, inmate mothers with several children may be less likely to engage in coping behaviours which might result in a worsening of the problem, such as trouble with prison staff. Are there any other styles used for coping? Cramer (2000) suggests that the defence mechanism is a second process used for adaptation to stress. While coping can be considered a conscious and intentional adaptation process, a defence mechanism could be defined as unconscious and non intentional. What is the importance of identifying coping styles? The identification of inmate coping styles can lead to implementation of new therapeutic techniques within the prison. For example, once it is discovered what coping styles are employed, they can be utilised in a therapeutic setting, such as individual or group therapy. Also, particular skills of the inmates, such as writing or craft making, may be found to be effective coping strategies. Such skills can be expanded upon to allow the inmate to utilise these skills for possible employment or profit upon release. It is important to recognise the strengths of these inmates, so that their own resources can be modified or expanded upon for maximum benefit, both for the individual inmate as well as society.
(11) NEGOTIATION SKILLS : The ability to communicate with other people for the purpose of settling a matter, coming to terms, or reaching an agreement. This may involve the ability to compromise or to give and take.
: They help us to meet and address individual needs and concerns in ways that are mutually beneficial. This is a key factor in working and playing cooperatively with others.
(12) REFUSAL SKILLS : The ability to communicate the decision to say “no” effectively (so that it is understood).
: Refusal skills enable us to carry out health –enhancing behaviours that are consistent with our values and decisions.
(13) ASSERTIVENESS : The ability to state one’s point of view or SKILLS personal rights clearly and confidently, without denying the personal rights of others.
: Assertiveness skills enable people to take actions that are in their own best interests. Such actions include the ability to stand up for oneself or someone else without feeling intimidated or anxious and to express feelings and points of view honestly and openly.
(14) HEALTHY SELF- : The ability to make situational and lifestyle MANAGEMENT/ behaviour choices that result in attaining and/or MONITORING maintaining one’s physical, social, emotional, SKILLS spiritual and environmental health.
: They enable us to maintain health-enhancing decisions from day-to-day as well as to reach longer term health and wellness goals.
(Definitions - Courtesy Carlisle Branker, Vimla Ramsumair, Joyce Persad and HFLE Curriculum Working Team)
15) SKILLS TO DEVELOP IN PROJECTS AND LIFE SKILLS SESSIONS
THINKING SKILLS ORAL/ AURAL SKILLS INFORMATION. PROCESSING SKILLS PRACTICAL SKILLS WRITING PROCESS SKILLS SOCIAL SKILLS Brain-storming
Using KW LA approach ( What I Know, What I Want to Know, What I have Learnt (after research and practical activities) and What Action I will Take) Group or pair discussion on how they would get this information: which sources Reading to get information from sources e.g. text, library book, encyclopaedia Doing experiments, interviews, surveys, visits Recording observations, procedures, findings and results Helping and motivating others. Making sure that each member of the group has a chance to express her thoughts. Completing her tasks as part of the group
Self & peer assessment of the procedure, including use of instruments, & of the results, according to agreed criteria Self assessment of improvements in leadership behaviours discussed before group work Selection of particular topics, issues to base project on. (analytical/evaluative thinking) Formulating questions to ask in an interview to get further information Summarising and note-taking to record information gained/ selected Making charts, models, comic strips to demonstrate information and feelings Writing first draft of short response, report, essay, based on agreed criteria and stated in a checklist Cooperating with others and sharing ideas Validating others Self & peer assessment to check if the questions are adequate in content to get the information required Self & peer assessment to see if information gained is sufficient & is clearly stated Self & peer assessment to check if the aim of the student has been fulfilled by the product & if it is easily understood Self & peer assessment using content checklist Self assessment of improvement in team behaviours, discussed before group work Formulating questions to fill gaps in current information base of trainee Discussing possible products and processes of this project and agreeing on headings, criteria for practical and writing work. Interviewing selected persons in home and/or community - or interviewing fellow trainees role playing on the issue Interpreting data to piece out challenges, achievements, and developments trainees would like to initiate or recommend
Estimating, measuring & calculating data relevant to issue Composing music inspired by the issue & its challenges that can be integrated with the form of the completed piece, which might be a song/ calypso/ poem/rap Writing second draft using the suggestions from self and peers on how to improve it and then editing the piece, based on agreed checklist ( mechanics of English – spelling, punctuation, grammar) Self & peer assessment to check if the interview was well conducted and produced sufficient data to assist the project
Self & peer assessment of the accuracy, understandings inferences - creative & analytical thinking about the findings Self & peer assessment of the suitability of the music according to agreed criteria Self and peer observation and assessment of completed practical and written work according to agreed checklists. ]]
