PHI-130: Critical Reasoning Reading 1

What is Critical Reasoning?

Critical reasoning involves the ability to actively and skillfully conceptualize, analyze, question and evaluate ideas and beliefs. Critical reasoning is the opposite of dogma. Dogma is unquestioned information — information that is embraced without the intervention of active thought or criticism. To reason critically is to question the ideas and beliefs of others and oneself and to challenge dogma and authority.

When we start to question the ideas and beliefs we live by, we start to think for ourselves. To think for ourselves involves a critical attitude of reflecting upon how we think and act. To think critically is to question the world and thus to engage critically with the possibilities and alternatives which the world offers.

Please note that the terms “critical reasoning”, “critical thinking” and “clear thinking” are used interchangeably in this discussion. In other words, critical reasoning implies critical thinking or clear thinking.

We think critical reasoning involves three important components of reasoning. These components are as follows:

• Critical reasoning is thinking for yourself.
• Critical reasoning is informed reasoning.
• Critical reasoning is critical self-reflection.

Critical reasoning is about arguments: their construction, analysis and evaluation. It is therefore important to understand what we mean by the term “argument”. The term “argument” can be used in three different senses:

1. a quarrel or fight between two or more people
2. a group of statements intended to establish the truth or acceptability of a claim
3. an exchange between two or more people who disagree with each other, in which each person gives reasons to support his or her position.

To bring out the different senses of the term “argument”, consider the sentence:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument.

If we use sense (1) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument with a sociology lecturer in the local bar and was taken to hospital.

If we use sense (2) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument which, he claimed, established the truth of the proposition “God exists”.

If we use sense (3) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument with his colleagues after they disputed his claim that God exists.

When we talk about an argument in critical reasoning, we do not use it in sense (1). That is, we do not mean a quarrel between two persons. In critical reasoning, the term “argument” is used in senses (2) and (3) only.

The following are some warm-up exercises to set your thought processes in motion before you embark on the journey to become a serious critical thinker (each question is a simplified version of a real critical reasoning question). Read the following statements and then answer the questions about them:

1. The best movie showing right now is Raiders of the Lost Ark by Steven Spielberg: it has been in the number one position for three weeks.

a. How can we weaken this argument?

b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback

a. We could show that a popular movie is not necessarily a good movie. In other words, just because it is popular doesn’t mean it is good.

b. We could show that a popular movie is always a good movie. In other words, there is a direct relationship between popularity and quality.

2. All dogs have hair. Therefore, pets have hair.

a. If so, what are the hidden assumptions? (e.g.implicit factors taken for granted)

Feedback

a. The hidden assumption is that all pets are dogs.

3. The President is of the opinion that all citizens should have the opportunity to go to college. However, he did not go to college.

a. How can we weaken this argument?

b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback

a. We could say that the President’s personal background is not related to his suggestion.

b. We could say that the President’s personal background is related to his suggestion.

4. Two hours ago Brian had a splitting headache, so he took two headache tablets. Brian still has a headache. Therefore, headache tablets are useless.

a. How can we weaken this argument?

b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback

a. We could say that Brian’s results will not necessarily be the same as the results of other people.

b. We could say that Brian’s results will be the same as the results of other people.

Becoming a Critical Thinker

Critical reasoning or critical thinking is a basic skill that all humans are born with, but which can be sharpened with practice. The better your ability to think critically, the better you will be at making good decisions in your life. The skills involved in critical reasoning will assist you in every area of life and study, whether it is deciding which political candidate to vote for or which job to take.

Keep in mind that the foundation for this course is already embedded in you.

Part 1:

For this activity use your journal and write down what the difference in meaning is between the following statements. It is important to write your opinion down; often we think we have an opinion, but once we have to write it down, we discover that it might be flawed.

STATEMENT	V.	STATEMENT
Everybody is innocent until proven guilty.	→	Nobody is guilty until proven not to be innocent.
Anything you say may be used against you in a court of law.	→	Everything you say may be used against you in a court of law.
If you are not religious you are bad.	→	If you are religious, you are good.
If you do not vote, you may not complain about the outcome.	→	People who do not vote have no say.
As the economy is on a downslide, we need to save money.	→	We need to save money when the economy is on a downslide.

Part 2

Which of the following skills were required to figure out the meaning of the statements in Part 1? Note whether you AGREE or DISAGREE.

1. You need to be able to determine how the several parts of an argument relate to each other.
2. You need to have good language skills (understand the language properly).
3. You need the ability to locate and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the argument.
4. You need the ability to locate and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the argument.
5. The entire process of argumentation must be viewed within a certain context.

Feedback

We think that you need all the above-mentioned skills to figure out the meaning of the statements in Part 1.

Thinking for Yourself

If you think for yourself, you question the world and offer alternative viewpoints about the way the world is perceived by other people. When we say think for yourself, we don’t mean ‘think selfishly for yourself’. We mean ‘think independently’. A person who thinks for herself or himself has to have a sense of humility, and of modesty, and of relativity because you have to realise that other people are also thinking for themselves and you’re bound to come out with something a little different from what they are thinking. In order to become a critical thinker, you have to have the ability to listen and the modesty to adjust your point of view as you gather more insights.

Thinking in an Informed Way

As you would have seen from your review of the recommended resources, informed reasoning is based on claims that can be substantiated. In other words, your opinion is based on fact and not on personal opinion. In today’s world where we become ever more involved in using technology as a resource for information, it is crucial that we have the ability to think in an informed way in order to be able to decipher the barrage of information available to us.

The ability to form and articulate opinions is extremely important in all facets of life. As citizens, people need to form opinions about political issues and leaders in order to vote responsibly. We must form opinions about social issues, and we form opinions about the people we work and interact with on a daily basis. However, simply having an opinion about a given topic is not enough. In this age of information, if we want to effectively share our opinions with others, we must be educated about the topics we are discussing.

Whether writing a letter to the editor about a local issue or trying to convince your boss that you’ve developed a great business strategy or convincing your parents that you should have a specific privilege, presenting an informed, educated opinion is much more effective than sharing one based on emotion or personal experience alone.

Critical Self-Reflection

In our opinion critical self-reflection entails the ability to reflect critically on your own assumptions, and to critically evaluate your own prejudicial attitudes and biases. Critical self-reflection relates to self-knowledge and self-awareness. Furthermore, the enterprise of critical self-reflection is liberating in that it allows us to think for ourselves instead of being indoctrinated and manipulated by stereotypical beliefs.

As a starting point for developing your competence at critical self-reflection, it would be useful to express your views on the following issues. Use your journal to write down a paragraph or two on each of the following controversial topics. In each case, ask yourself why you hold this particular view. Keep a record of your responses because you will revisit them when you do the critical self-reflection activity in Learning Pathway 2, Pre-conceived ideas.

• Marriage
• Single parenting
• Racial differences
• Gender differences
• Homosexuality
• Heterosexuality
• What am I?
• Who am I?
• How do other people see me?