Unit II: Instructional Strategies

Models of Teaching
A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings based on Joyce and Weil (1980).Models of teaching are really models of learning.As we help students acquire information, ideas , skills , values , ways of thinking , and means of expressing themselves , we are also teaching them 'How to learn'.Both because of knowledge and skills they have acquired and they have mastered more learning processes.

Meaning, definitions and characteristics
View of Paul Eggan and Others: “Teaching models re prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish particular teaching goals.” View of Joyce and Weil: They have given three meanings of teaching models: (i) “Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior.” (1972) (ii) Teaching model is a “pattern or plan which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, ot select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions.” (1972) Models are designed to attain specific goals. When a teacher identifies a goal, selects a particular strategy designed to attain that goal, we can say that he is using model approach. (iii) “A  model  of  teaching  consists  of  guidelines  for  designing  educational  activities  and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that areintended to attain certain kinds of goals.”

View of N.K. Jangira: “A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. Ithelps in designing instructional activities and  environmental  facilities,  carrying  out  of  these  activities  and  realization  of  the stipulated objectives.” (1983)

H. C.  Wyld  “To  confirm  in  behavior,  action  and  to  direct  one’s  action  according  to  some particular design or ideal.”

Function of Teaching Model

 * Formulate a complete & perfect teaching scheme.
 * As basic guidance for teachers for reflection during feedback session.
 * Enable teachers to analyse & evaluate its strengths & weaknesses so as to plan & implement appropriate follow-up actions
 * Provide guidance to planners & teachers to enable them to plan & carry out the teaching process effectively.

Types (Families) of  Teaching  Models
Information Processing  Model Why do our memory have? Information-Processing Model of Memory Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Storage (1971)
 * Information-Processing Model of Memory
 * Sensory Memory Compartment:Hold a large amount of information in a duration just enough for a small portion to be selected for longer storage.
 * Short-term Memory:Capacity is limited.Storage duration is brief (unless assisted with rehearsal)
 * Long-term Memory:A very large storage capacity (unlimited).Stored longer.

Sensory input>Sensory memory compartment>Short term memory compartment>Long term memory compartment

Information-Processing Model of Memory

 * '''Incoming information (sensory input) pass through
 * Sensory:Retains information for only a fraction of a second but enough to select the portion of information that arrests one’s attention. (The information that caught one’s attention is selected for longer storage)
 * Short term memory:
 * Can hold unrehearsed information for about 20 – 30 seconds.
 * Information can be stored longer if it is engaged under rehearsal. (Repetition of memorizing).
 * Long term memory:Information encoded may last for weeks, months or even years.

Environmental situation>Stimuli>Acquisition PhasePerception(Sensory organs)>Short-Term memory compartment>Long term memory compartment>'Internal responses'>Implementation Motivation phase  Apprehension Phase   Acquisition Phase   Retention Phase    Recall Phase   Generalisation Phase    Performance Phase Expectancy       Observation –         Encoding-           Memory retention   REcall searching   Transfer                 Response Perception Selection  Prestoring Important aspects in GAGNE's 8 phases:-
 * Gagne’s Information Processing Model
 * Learning readiness
 * Motivation
 * Perception
 * Conceptualization
 * Memorizing
 * Forgetting
 * Learning transfer

How it works:-
 * Process begins from extrinsic @ intrinsic motivation to perceive stimuli from environment.
 * New information recorded in short-term memory.
 * Information will be processed by relating stored information in long-term memory.
 * New information is reinforced, retained & applied when required.

The Expository Teaching Model

 * Referred as explicit explanation in details of certain facts.
 * A way of presentation of information @ learning contents to pupils directly.
 * Presenting learning materials by explanation, narration or demonstration.
 * Suitably use to teach certain concept and skill during the beginning of the lesson.
 * Principle and concept are explained verbally, as all the facts are written on the board, showed on the screen.
 * Time saving: Enables teacher to finish all related concepts in a shorter period & pupils merely listen quietly.
 * More to a lecturing method. (Less effective for primary schools)

Inquiry Teaching Model

 * Scientific Inquiry Model
 * Used to study principles, phenomena & characteristics of scientific knowledge.Research process based on 5 stages:
 * Identify the problem.
 * Ascertain relevant information.
 * Determine hypothesis.
 * Testing hypothesis.
 * Evaluate, interpret, infer & conclude.

6 steps:
 * Social Inquiry Model
 * Formulation of problem by teacher.
 * Formulation of hypothesis by pupils.
 * Define hypothesis.
 * Discuss & confirm validity of the hypothesis.
 * Collect & analyse evidences for the hypothesis.
 * Interpret & derive inference @ conclusion.

Two types:
 * Juris-Prudential Inquiry Model
 * Used to look for reality & accuracy in current issues (learning science is more useful than learning arts).
 * Concerns with science & philosophy of human law.
 * Based on activities, discussions and debates.
 * Guided inquiry: Teacher guides pupils to carry out the whole discussion process.
 * Open Inquiry: No guidelines given. Students have to do the discussion themselves.

Procedures:
 * Suchman’s Inquiry Model
 * Based on assumption that strategies used by scientists can be used as a teaching model especially in the study of science.
 * Teacher determines & indicates the problem.
 * Teacher explains the inquiry process to solve the previous problem.
 * Students are guided to form hypothesis, follows by the collection of relevant data.
 * Students use collected data to test hypothesis, aim to formulate theorem, law, principle or theory.
 * Discussion & making inferences.
 * Teacher & students discuss together and analyse.

Social Interaction Model
Basically temporary within a single class session
 * Model of Group Teaching & Co-operative Learning
 * Simulation Model
 * Sociodrama
 * Role play
 * Social model:-
 * Encourages assimilation and understanding of the learners
 * Uses group inquiry and problem-solving strategies
 * Relies on the students’ personal and social values
 * Ways of teaching
 * Group teaching and Co-operative teaching
 * Simulation
 * Informal learning group

Being formed to complete a specific tasks, such as to carry a project, performing a lab experiment, etc
 * FORMAL LEARNING GROUP

Long-term groups with a stable membership
 * STUDY TEAMS


 * ROLE-PLAY
 * Emphasize the social nature of learning
 * stimulate students both socially and intellectually
 * Role-playing is a teaching strategy that fits within the social family models
 * Improves interpersonal skills and enhances communication
 * Four stages
 * Preparation and explanation of the activity by the teacher
 * Student preparation of the activity
 * The role-playing
 * The discussion after the role-playing activities


 * SOCIODRAMA
 * More like an acting activity
 * Based on a story which reflects a certain situation involving conflicting issue, for example, Hang Tuah and Hang Jebat
 * Script should be prepared earlier
 * Advantages
 * Helps them to become aware of the typical ways they solve problems
 * Increases both social and personal awareness
 * Promote acceptance, cooperation in classroom

Personal Development Model
Based on Carl Rogers’ work, he believes that positive human relationships enable people to grow.Therefore instruction should be based on concepts of human relations.
 * Non-directive Teaching Model
 * Importance:
 * Teacher helps students to explore new ideas.
 * Students have freedom to making decisions and choices.
 * Teacher and students are partners in learning.
 * Nurtures and moulds students to be the way they are.
 * Encourages students to think and reflect their uncertain feelings and become better and be positive.


 * The importance of positive self concepts
 * Gain knowledge and experiences by enhancing their interests in learning through self-concepts.
 * Teacher shows positive approaches and optimistic reinforcements.
 * Boost their confidence.
 * Provide opportunities for students to express their ideas and listen to other’s opinions.


 * Developing self positive concepts
 * Appreciate the abilities and talents one possesses.
 * Positive self-concepts evolves with the moral values that should be emphasised among students.
 * Activities that help: Group/Individual Presentation, musical performances, stage performances.


 * Project Model
 * Based on the belief that learning would be effective if pupils are interested and ready to carry out learning activities.Examples of Project Model:
 * Research Project
 * Teacher determines suitable research topic in accordance to the pupils’ experience, ability and interest.
 * Aims and procedures must be determined first and pupils are informed about this.
 * Teacher prepares relevant materials (check list, questions to be answered, etc.) to facilitate pupils.
 * Research should be carried out safely & every pupil should actively involve in group activities.
 * Teacher supervises and provides guidance to pupils.
 * Teacher discusses the outcomes of research & evaluation should be conducted after research is completed.


 * Handicraft Project
 * Planning of the project is based on pupils’ interest and ability.
 * Prepare sufficient materials.
 * Explain procedure precisely.
 * Show examples of correct ways to do the project.
 * Time period is required!
 * Discussion is carried out to assess the work when it is done.
 * Display good quality work to the other students.


 * Educational Visit
 * Before the Visit:
 * Identify the place of visit.
 * Obtain permission.
 * Arrange for transport.
 * Conduct briefing session regarding safety, precautions, behaviours, aims of visit and regulations.
 * Prepare sufficient equipments
 * During the Visit:
 * Divide pupils into several small groups.
 * Every pupil should actively involve.
 * Watch out for pupils’ safety.
 * Give appropriate response to pupils’ inquiry.
 * After the Visit:
 * Hold discussion session with pupils regarding their observations.
 * Plan follow-up activity (making model, draw plan or model, display things)


 * The importance of project model
 * Students able to relate their previous experiences to what they are studying.
 * Able to understand objectives of the projects before and after lesson.
 * Fun activities that attract students’ interests in learning more & apply what they have learnt.Moral values are applied.Theories, facts & hypotheses are brought into practices (I do, I remember & understand).
 * Co-operations among students.
 * Direct experiences & additional knowledge

Behaviour Modification Model
A teaching technique involves the use of a teacher’s skill to demonstrate @ perform a certain activity in the class.Teacher has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules & regulations. (Teacher-centered).
 * Direct instruction model
 * Demonstration:

Determine learning outcomes by planning explicit learning objective (based on students’ performance). Teach pupils with effective teaching method & technique (use of suitable learning materials to suit different learning styles) Evaluate learning result by diagnostic test & summative test (level of mastering & achievement) Carry out remedial activities for pupils who have not fully mastered certain skills & provide enrichment activities for pupils who have mastered the lesson.
 * Mastery learning
 * Refers to a theory & practice of using remedial teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the learning objectives.
 * Procedures:

The application of technology & computer system in teaching.Pupils follow designed learning materials in software without teacher’s help.Teacher has to facilitate the pupils to have interest in manipulating computer.
 * Programmed instruction model
 * Computer Assisted Instruction (CIA)


 * Designing Instructional System
 * Formulation of Instructional Objectives
 * Task Analysis
 * Overview of Models of Instructional Design- ADDIE Model, ASSURE model
 * Designing of Instructional Strategies: Concept Mapping, Lecture, Team Teaching, Cooperative Learning, Discussion, Panel Discussion, Seminars,Tutorials
 * Programmed Instruction
 * Concept and  Types:  Linear  or  Extrinsic  Programming,  Branching  or  Intrinsic Programming
 * Development of  Programmed  Instructional  Material:  Linear  and  Branching Model, Teaching Machines, Computer Assisted Instruction