Foundations of educational technology

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=Course Content=

Unit I: Educational Technology: Meaning, Nature and Scope

 * Historical Perspective of Educational Technology
 * Meaning and Scope of Educational Technology
 * The nature of Educational Technology: Evolution of the concept of Educational Technology, The existing position and latest concept
 * Forms of Educational Technology: Teaching Technology, Instructional Technology, Behavioural Technology, Instructional Design Technology
 * Educational Technology as Systems Approach
 * Major Institutions of Educational Technology in India and their role: CIET, AVRC, EMRC, MCRC, IGNOU, SIET, Consortium for Educational Communication (CEC)-UGC

Models of Teaching
A model of teaching is a plan or pattern that can be used to shape curriculums (long-term courses of studies), to design instructional materials, and to guide instruction in the classroom and other settings based on Joyce and Weil (1980).Models of teaching are really models of learning.As we help students acquire information, ideas , skills , values , ways of thinking , and means of expressing themselves , we are also teaching them 'How to learn'.Both because of knowledge and skills they have acquired and they have mastered more learning processes.

Meaning, definitions and characteristics
View of Paul Eggan and Others: “Teaching models are prescriptive teaching strategies designed to accomplish particular teaching goals.”

View of Joyce and Weil: They have given three meanings of teaching models-
 * 1) “Teaching models are just instructional designs. They describe the process of specifying and producing particular environmental situations which cause the student to interact in such a way that specific change occurs in his behavior.” (1972)
 * 2) Teaching model is a “pattern or plan which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, ot select instructional materials and to guide a teacher’s actions.” (1972) Models are designed to attain specific goals. When a teacher identifies a goal, selects a particular strategy designed to attain that goal, we can say that he is using model approach.
 * 3) “A model  of  teaching  consists  of  guidelines  for  designing  educational  activities  and environments. It specifies ways of teaching and learning that areintended to attain certain kinds of goals.”

View of N.K. Jangira: “A model of teaching is a set of inter-related components arranged in a sequence which provides guidelines to realize specific goal. Ithelps in designing instructional activities and  environmental  facilities,  carrying  out  of  these  activities  and  realization  of  the stipulated objectives.” (1983)

H. C.  Wyld “To confirm  in  behavior,  action  and  to  direct  one’s  action  according  to  some particular design or ideal.”

Functions of Teaching Model

 * Formulate a complete & perfect teaching scheme.
 * As basic guidance for teachers for reflection during feedback session.
 * Enable teachers to analyse & evaluate its strengths & weaknesses so as to plan & implement appropriate follow-up actions
 * Provide guidance to planners & teachers to enable them to plan & carry out the teaching process effectively.

Information Processing Model

 * Types of Information Processing Model
 * Information-Processing Model of Memory
 * Gagne’s Information Processing Model
 * The Expository Teaching Model
 * Inquiry Teaching Model
 * Scientific Inquiry Model
 * Social Inquiry Model
 * Juris-Prudential Inquiry Model
 * Suchman’s Inquiry Model
 * What do OUR MEMORY HAVE?
 * Sensory Memory Compartment
 * Hold a large amount of information in a duration just enough for a small portion to be selected for longer storage
 * Short-term Memory
 * Capacity is limited.Storage duration is brief (unless assisted with rehearsal
 * Long-term Memory
 * A very large storage capacity (unlimited).Stored longer
 * Information-Processing Model of Memory
 * Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Storage (1971)
 * Sensory Input-Sensory Memory Compartment-Short Term Memory Compartment-Long Term Compartment
 * Information-Processing Model of Memory
 * Incoming information (sensory input) pass through:
 * Sensory
 * Short-term memory
 * Long-term memory
 * Sensory memory
 * Retains information for only a fraction of a second but enough to select the portion of information that arrests one’s attention. (The information that caught one’s attention is selected for longer storage)
 * Short-term
 * Can hold unrehearsed information for about 20 – 30 seconds.
 * Information can be stored longer if it is engaged under rehearsal. (Repetition of memorizing).
 * Long-term
 * Information encoded may last for weeks, months or even years.

Social Interaction Model

 * Social Inquiry Model:
 * Used to study topics related to social & humanity aspects.
 * Based on activities such as observation, interview, @ questionnaire.
 * Emphasizes on social interaction process.
 * 6 steps:
 * Formulation of problem by teacher.
 * Formulation of hypothesis by pupils.
 * Define hypothesis.
 * Discuss & confirm validity of the hypothesis.
 * Collect & analyse evidences for the hypothesis.
 * Interpret & derive inference @ conclusion.
 * Social Model
 * Model of Group Teaching & Co-operative Learning
 * Simulation Model
 * Sociodrama
 * Role play
 * SOCIAL MODEL
 * Uses group inquiry and problem-solving strategies
 * Encourages assimilation and understanding of the learners
 * Relies on the students’ personal and social values
 * Ways of Teaching
 * GROUP TEACHING AND CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING
 * INFORMAL LEARNING GROUP
 * FORMAL LEARNING GROUP
 * STUDY TEAMS
 * SIMULATION
 * ROLE-PLAY
 * SOCIODRAMA

Personal Development Model

 * Personal Model
 * Non-directive Teaching Model
 * Developing Positive Self-concepts
 * Project Model
 * Research Project
 * Handicraft Project
 * Educational Visit
 * Non-directive Teaching Model
 * Based on Carl Rogers’ work, he believes that positive human relationships enable people to grow.
 * Therefore instruction should be based on concepts of human relations.
 * Phases in Non Directive Model
 * Phase 1 : Defining the Helping Situation
 * Teacher encourages free expression of feelings.
 * Phase 2: Exploring the Problem
 * Student is encouraged to define problem.
 * Teacher accepts and clarifies feelings.
 * Phase 3: Developing Insight
 * Student discusses problem.
 * Teacher supports student.
 * Phase 4: Planning and Decision Making
 * Student plans initial decision making.
 * Teacher clarifies possible decision.
 * Phase 5: Integration
 * Student gains further insight and develops more positive actions.
 * Teacher is supportive.
 * Action Outside the Interview
 * Student initiates positive actions.
 * The Importance of Non-directive Teaching Model
 * Teacher helps students to explore new ideas.
 * Students have freedom to making decisions and choices.
 * Teacher and students are partners in learning.
 * Nurtures and moulds students to be the way they are.
 * Encourages students to think and reflect their uncertain feelings and become better and be positive.

Behaviour Modification Model

 * Behavioural Model
 * Direct Instruction Model
 * Mastery Learning
 * Programmed Instruction Model
 * Direct Instruction Model
 * Demonstration:
 * A teaching technique involves the use of a teacher’s skill to demonstrate @ perform a certain activity in the class.
 * Teacher has a strong control over what is learnt in the classroom, provides feedback, monitoring students, grading work and strict classroom rules & regulations. (Teacher-centered).
 * Mastery learning
 * Refers to a theory & practice of using remedial teaching based on feedback of pupil’s performance to assist them to achieve the learning objectives.
 * Procedures:
 * Determine learning outcomes by planning explicit learning objective (based on students’ performance).
 * Teach pupils with effective teaching method & technique (use of suitable learning materials to suit different learning styles)
 * Evaluate learning result by diagnostic test & summative test (level of mastering & achievement)
 * Carry out remedial activities for pupils who have not fully mastered certain skills & provide enrichment activities for pupils who have mastered the lesson.

Formulation of Instructional Objectives

 * A learning objective is a statement of the measurable learning that is intended to take place as a result of instruction.
 * Instructonal objectives are statements that describe the abilities students should be able to display to demonstrate the important concepts and principles have been incorporated into their own structures of knowledge.
 * Objective
 * Instructional Intent (What will i Teach?)
 * Direction of Instruction (How will i Teach it?)
 * Guidelines for Instructions ( How will i know students has learned?)
 * Instructional objectives :
 * State what the student will be able to do (observable behavior)
 * With the conditions under which they should be able to demonstrate (condition)
 * Under the expected degree of proficiency (criterion)
 * The functions of Objectives
 * they offer a means for the instructional designer to design appropriate instruction, specifically to select and organize instructional activities and resources that facilitate effective learning. The result is a highly focused unit of instruction.
 * provide a framework for devising ways to evaluate student learning.
 * Categories of Objectives
 * Objectives are typically grouped into three major categories (or domains, as they are generally called):
 * cognitive
 * psychomotor
 * Affective
 * Cognitive Domain
 * The cognitive domain is considered one of the most important domains when designing instructional experiences.
 * This domain includes objectives related to information or knowledge, naming, solving, predicting, and other intellectual aspects of learning.
 * Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, and Krathwohl (1956) developed a widely used taxonomy for the cognitive domain.
 * A taxonomy is a method of sequential classification on different levels.
 * Psychomotor Domain
 * the psychomotor domain, encompasses the skills requiring the use and coordination of skeletal muscles, as in the physical activities of performing, manipulating, and constructing.
 * Affective Domain
 * the affective domain, involves objectives concerning attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotions such as enjoy- ing, conserving, and respecting.
 * This area is typically believed to be very important in education and training, but it is the one area in which we have been able to do the least, particularly in writing useful instructional objectives.
 * Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964) organized the affective domain into five levels.
 * Writing instructional objectives
 * This is a design activity that requires changes and additions as the instruction is developed.
 * Sometimes it is not until the instructional strategies are selected or evaluation methods stated that the ‘‘real’’ objectives for a topic are evident.
 * The Basis for Objectives
 * Objectives are based on the results of the task analysis and provide a refinement and implementation of the needs of and/or goals for a project.
 * If you use only a needs assessment to define your problem, the objectives will relate directly to those needs.
 * If you use a goal analysis, the objectives will reflect a refinement of the goals.
 * Steps for writing objectives
 * Instructional objectives identify information necessary to solve the performance problem.
 * eriving the objectives is a four-step process to be completed after the task analysis.
 * These steps are as follows:
 * Review the task analysis and identify the essential knowledge, tasks(i.e., procedures), and attitudes the learner must master to solve the performance problem.
 * Group the task analysis in clusters with the goals or needs you have identified.
 * Write an objective for each of the goal statements or needs.
 * Write objectives for any additional information that is essential and that is not addressed by an objective.

Task Analysis

 * Approaches to task analysis
 * Task decomposition
 * splitting task into (ordered) subtasks
 * Knowledge based techniques
 * what the user knows about the task
 * and how it is organized
 * Entity/object based analysis
 * relationships between objects, actions and the people who perform them
 * Lots of different notations/techniques

ADDIE Model

 * Meaning and Definiton
 * The ADDIE model is a framework that lists generic processes that instructional designers and training developers use. It represents a descriptive guideline for building effective training and performance support tools in five phases.


 * Analysis
 * Design
 * Development
 * Implementation
 * Evaluation

ADDIE is an Instructional Systems Design (ISD) framework. Most current ISD models are variations of the ADDIE process. Other models include the Dick & Carey and Kemp ISD models. Rapid prototyping is a commonly used alternative to this approach; rapid prototyping is the idea of reviewing continual or formative feedback while creating instructional materials. This model strives to save time and money by catching problems while they are still easy to fix. A more recent expression of rapid prototyping is SAM (successive approximation model).

Instructional theories also play an important role in the design of instructional materials. Theories such as behaviorism, constructivism, social learning, and cognitivism help shape and define the outcome of instructional materials.

ASSURE model
For effective instruction to take place, careful planning is required. This model is designed to help you effectively integrate media/technology into your lesson or presentation - to help "assure" learning. There are six parts to the model. The first step in planning is to specifically define your audience. You must know the learners if you are to select the best strategies to meet the objectives you have set. The audience can be analyzed in terms of their general characteristics (grade level, age) and specific entry competencies (prior knowledge, skills, and attitudes about the topic, and learning styles). The next step in planning is to specifically state the objectives for the lesson or presentation. Objectives must be stated in terms of what the learner (not the teacher or presenter) will do (stated in behavioral terms) as the result of instruction. Your lesson should include 2-3 specific objectives. Objectives typically contain 4 basic parts: Now you have set the beginning point (the audience's present knowledge, skills, and attitudes) and the ending point (objectives) of your instruction. Now your job is the build an instructional bridge that will connect the two points. You may select available materials, modify existing materials, or design new materials to help accomplish this task. You may select several different types of media to use with the unit. Any of the media/technology discussed in the text will be appropriate. Now you must decide how the materials will be used by the students. Preview the materials and practice the lesson. Next, prepare the room and be sure the necessary equipment and facilities are available and ready for your use before you actually use the lesson. Learners need to practice what they have learned. Describe how the learners will actively use the materials you have selected. Correct responses should be reinforced. There should be activities included in the lesson or that allow learners to respond and receive feedback before any type of evaluation is administered. After instruction, you must evaluate the entire instructional process. Did the learners meet the objectives? Did the media/materials assist the learners in reaching those objectives? Could all learners use the materials properly? If there are discrepancies between what you intended and what actually happened during the lesson, make appropriate revisions before making the lesson again.
 * Analyze Learners
 * State Objectives
 * a simple statement that describes the intended Audience. For example, "The first grade student will . . . " or "The tenth grade English student will . . . "
 * a statement of the expected student Behavior that will occur as a result of your instruction. This behavior needs to be observable, so it can be evaluated. For example, action verbs like add, alphabetize, arrange, build, choose, classify, contrast, define, describe, diagram, identify, kick, label, locate, make, multiply, name, produce, pronounce, select, sketch, sort, specify, state, throw, underline, verbalize, and write are very useful. Avoid words like know, appreciate, grasp, or understand. These do not represent observable behavior. Remember that the behavior stated is that of the student, not the teacher.
 * a statement of the Conditions under which performance is to be observed. What resources will the student be allowed to use (e.g., a map, a dictionery)? What tools or equipment will the student be allowed to use? Will the student be allowed to use notes or an outline when writing an essay?
 * a statement of the Degree of accuracy or proficiency the learner must display in order to move on. The criteria should be based on some real-world requirement, not stated in terms of a score on a multiple choice test. Time and accuracy are frequently meaningful for many objectives. Should an eleventh grade English student be able to write a five paragraph theme within 50 minutes? If a third grade student can complete at least seven of ten single-digit multiplication problems, can the teacher assume he or she has mastered the concept?
 * Select Media and Materials
 * Utilize Media and Materials
 * Require Learner Performance
 * Evaluate and Revise

Concept Mapping
A concept map or conceptual diagram is a diagram that depicts suggested relationships between concepts. It is a graphical tool that instructional designers, engineers, technical writers, and others use to organize and structure knowledge.
 * Meaning and definition

A concept map typically represents ideas and information as boxes or circles, which it connects with labeled arrows in a downward-branching hierarchical structure. The relationship between concepts can be articulated in linking phrases such as causes, requires, or contributes to.

The technique for visualizing these relationships among different concepts is called concept mapping. Concept maps define the ontology of computer systems, for example with the object-role modeling or Unified Modeling Language formalism

Concept maps are widely used in education and business.Uses include:
 * Uses of Concept Mapping


 * Note taking and summarizing gleaning key concepts, their relationships and hierarchy from documents and source materials
 * New knowledge creation: e.g., transforming tacit knowledge into an organizational resource, mapping team knowledge
 * Institutional knowledge preservation (retention), e.g., eliciting and mapping expert knowledge of employees prior to retirement
 * Collaborative knowledge modeling and the transfer of expert knowledge
 * Facilitating the creation of shared vision and shared understanding within a team or organization
 * Instructional design: concept maps used as Ausubelian "advance organizers" that provide an initial conceptual frame for subsequent information and learning.
 * Training: concept maps used as Ausubelian "advanced organizers" to represent the training context and its relationship to their jobs, to the organization's strategic objectives, to training goals.
 * Increasing meaningful learning for example through writing activities where concept maps automatically generated from an essay are shown to the writer.
 * Communicating complex ideas and arguments
 * Examining the symmetry of complex ideas and arguments and associated terminology
 * Detailing the entire structure of an idea, train of thought, or line of argument (with the specific goal of exposing faults, errors, or gaps in one's own reasoning) for the scrutiny of others.
 * Enhancing metacognition (learning to learn, and thinking about knowledge)
 * Improving language ability
 * Knowledge elicitation
 * Assessing learner understanding of learning objectives, concepts, and the relationship among those concepts

Lecture
A lecture (from the French 'lecture', meaning 'reading' [process]) is an oral presentation intended to present information or teach people about a particular subject, for example by a university or college teacher. Lectures are used to convey critical information, history, background, theories and equations. A politician's speech, a minister's sermon, or even a businessman's sales presentation may be similar in form to a lecture. Usually the lecturer will stand at the front of the room and recite information relevant to the lecture's content.
 * Lecture

Though lectures are much criticised as a teaching method, universities have not yet found practical alternative teaching methods for the large majority of their courses. Critics point out that lecturing is mainly a one-way method of communication that does not involve significant audience participation but relies of passive learning. Therefore, lecturing is often contrasted to active learning. Lectures delivered by talented speakers can be highly stimulating; at the very least, lectures have survived in academia as a quick, cheap and efficient way of introducing large numbers of students to a particular field of study.

Lectures have a significant role outside the classroom, as well. Academic and scientific awards routinely include a lecture as part of the honor, and academic conferences often center around "keynote addresses", i.e., lectures. The public lecture has a long history in the sciences and in social movements. Union halls, for instance, historically have hosted numerous free and public lectures on a wide variety of matters. Similarly, churches, community centers, libraries, museums, and other organizations have hosted lectures in furtherance of their missions or their constituents' interests. Lectures represent a continuation of oral tradition in contrast to textual communication in books and other media. Lectures may be considered a type of grey literature.

Team Teaching
In team teaching a group of teachers, working together, plan, conduct, and evaluate the learning activities for the same group of students. In practice, team teaching has many different formats but in general it is a means of organising staff into groups to enhance teaching. Teams generally comprise staff members who may represent different areas of subject expertise but who share the same group of students and a common planning period to prepare for the teaching. To facilitate this process a common teaching space is desirable. However, to be effective team teaching requires much more than just a common meeting time and space.


 * Use of Team teaching

In view of the additional complexity which team teaching initiatives introduce into departmental organisation and in view of the time needed for staff to adapt to the new structures, it is relevant to ask what benefits accrue from team teaching. How, for instance, does team teaching benefit lecturers, part-time tutors, students, and departments as a whole?

For Lecturers, who so often work alone, team teaching provides a supportive environment that overcomes the isolation of working in self-contained or departmentalized class-rooms. Being exposed to the subject expertise of colleagues, to open critique, to different styles of planning and organisation, as well as methods of class presentation, teachers can develop their approaches to teaching and acquire a greater depth of understanding of the subject matter of the unit or module. Part-time staff can be drawn more closely into the department as members of teams than is usually the case, with a resulting increase in integration of course objectives and approaches to teaching. Team teaching can lead to better student performance in terms of greater independence and assuming responsibility for learning. Exposure to views and skills of more than one teacher can develop a more mature understanding of knowledge often being problematic rather than right or wrong. Learning can become more active and involved. Students could eventually make an input into team planning. Team teaching aids the professional and interpersonal dynamics of departments leading to closer integration of staff

Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is an educational approach which aims to organize classroom activities into academic and social learning experiences. There is much more to Cooperative Learning than merely arranging students into groups, and it has been described as "structuring positive interdependence."Students must work in groups to complete tasks collectively toward academic goals. Unlike individual learning, which can be competitive in nature, students learning cooperatively can capitalize on one another’s resources and skills (asking one another for information, evaluating one another’s ideas, monitoring one another’s work, etc.). Furthermore, the teacher's role changes from giving information to facilitating students' learning.[5][6] Everyone succeeds when the group succeeds. Ross and Smyth (1995) describe successful cooperative learning tasks as intellectually demanding, creative, open-ended, and involve higher order thinking tasks.Five essential elements are identified for the successful incorporation of cooperative learning in the classroom.The first and most important element is Positive Interdependence. The second element is individual and group accountability. The third element is (face to face) promotive interaction. The fourth element is teaching the students the required interpersonal and small group skills. The fifth element is group processing. According to Johnson and Johnson's meta-analysis, students in cooperative learning settings compared to those in individualistic or competitive learning settings, achieve more, reason better, gain higher self-esteem, like classmates and the learning tasks more and have more perceived social support.

Discussion

 * Simple Definition of discussion
 * the act of talking about something with another person or a group of people : a conversation about something
 * a speech or piece of writing that gives information, ideas, opinions, etc., about something

Full Definition of discussion
 * consideration of a question in open and usually informal debate
 * a formal treatment of a topic in speech or writing

It is the action or process of talking about something in order to reach a decision or to exchange ideas. "the committee acts as a forum for discussion" a conversation or debate about a specific topic.
 * Definition

Panel Discussion

 * A panel discussion, or simply a panel, involves a group of people gathered to discuss a topic in front of an audience, typically at scientific, business or academic conferences, fan conventions, and on television shows. Panels usually include a moderator who guides the discussion and sometimes elicits audience questions, with the goal of being informative and entertaining.[1][2] Film panels at fan conventions have been credited with boosting box office returns by generating advance buzz


 * The typical format for a discussion panel includes a moderator in front of an audience

Seminars

 * A seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a commercial or professional organization.[citation needed] It has the function of bringing together small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. This is often accomplished through an ongoing Socratic dialogue[1] with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more formal presentation of research. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed, questions can be raised and debates can be conducted.

Tutorials

 * A tutorial is a method of transferring knowledge and may be used as a part of a learning process. More interactive and specific than a book or a lecture, a tutorial seeks to teach by example and supply the information to complete a certain task.

Depending on the context a tutorial can take one of many forms, ranging from a set of instructions to complete a task to an interactive problem solving session (usually in academia).

Programmed Instruction

 * Characteristics of programmed instruction
 * Skinerian program is based on operant conditioning from behaviourist theory of human behaviour
 * Crowderian programming or branched programming is based on theory of human training
 * It is a strategy of developing sequences of developing material in such a way that maximizes the rate and depth of learning foster understanding and provide reinforcement to the learner
 * In this type of strategy the assumptions are clearly stated which pertain to the level of reading comprehency of the learner his command of vocabulary and background of the subject matter
 * The instructional objectives underlying the programme are defined in explicit and operational terms
 * Subject matter is presented in logical steps
 * Provide immediate feedback
 * Individual differences taken care of
 * Continuous evaluation
 * Based on psychological principles
 * Basic principles of programming
 * Principles of small steps
 * Principle of immediate confirmation
 * Principle of active response
 * Self pacing
 * Student testing
 * Modified principles
 * Mandatory principles
 * Objective specification
 * Empirical testing
 * Individual tryout
 * Small group tryout
 * Field try out
 * Self pacing
 * Optional principles
 * Overt responding
 * Immediate feedback
 * Small size steps
 * Sequencing
 * Type of responses
 * Error rate
 * Prompting

Concept and Types:

 * Definitions
 * Edgar Dale: Programmed learning is a systematic step by step self instructional program aimed to ensure the learning of stated behaviour.
 * G.O.M. Leith: Program is a sequence of small steps of instructional material called frames most of which require a response to be made by completing a blank space in the sentence. To ensure that expected responses are given, a system of cueing is applied and each response is verified by the provision of immediate knowledge of results. Such a sequence is intended to be worked at the learners’ own pace as individual self-instruction.
 * It is a device which presents an exercise or a problem to a student, inducing him to respond, and revealing to him whether or not his response is correct.
 * It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instructional events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviour of each and every acceptable student.
 * Educational programming is the scheduling and control of student behaviour in the learning process.
 * It is a planned sequence of experiences, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus response relationship.
 * Types of Programmed Instructions
 * Linear programming
 * Branching programming
 * Computer assisted instruction

Linear or Extrinsic  Programming

 * Linear/Extrinsic programming
 * B. F. Skinner originator
 * Based on operand conditioning theory
 * Also called single track program
 * According to Skinner- a creature human or bird can be lead to a desired behaviour by means of a carefully constructed program consisting of small steps leading logically through the subject matter leading topic to topic, provided each step is reinforced by some kind of favourable experience or reward.
 * Increment is small
 * Favorable experiences increase probability of same response repetition
 * Process of rewarding the correct responses to a stimulus increases the general tendency to give a response
 * Responses of the learners are controlled by the programmer therefore called extrinsic programming
 * Principles of linear programming
 * Small steps
 * Active responding
 * Minimum errors
 * Knowledge of results
 * Characteristics of linear program
 * Single track or straight line
 * Linear material is presented in series of small steps
 * Every learner follows same path
 * Content broken in small units
 * Sequence of steps remain unchanged
 * Learner composes his own answer
 * Learner is expected to response actively
 * Response is immediately reinforced
 * Self pacing
 * Moves slowly but steadily from initial to terminal behaviour
 * Each unit is called frame
 * Programmer controls the responses
 * Learner learns by avoiding errors
 * Merits of linear programming
 * Immediate knowledge of result acts as reinforcement
 * Small frames bring sub goals within reach of the learner
 * Repetition strengthens the responses and ensures learning
 * Easy nature of program provides successful experiences to learner
 * Limitations
 * Dull because of
 * Subject matter is broken in to small pieces
 * Responding is mechanical and restrictive
 * Learning process is slow
 * Use is limited to only some topics and subjects
 * Cramps the imagination of the learner for creative integrative and judgement learning
 * Encourages guessing
 * Does not develops discriminating power

Branching or Intrinsic Programming

 * Branching or Intrinsic Programming
 * Developed by Norman A. Crowder
 * Branching or intrinsic programming is the one which adopts the need of the learners without the medium of any extrinsic device such as a computer
 * It is not controlled extrinsically by the programmer
 * Program is based on intuition
 * Approach is more practical
 * This type of program enjoys multiple response patterns
 * Learner is required to select right answer out of several responses presented to him
 * Characteristics of a branching program
 * A frame may contain 2-3 related ideas or related sequences
 * Each frame is of bigger size as compared to linear programming
 * With a view to answer a question the learner has to arrive at an answer by setting the relationship between one idea and the other by filling up the gaps not fully covered in the frame only then he can select the correct alternative from the multiple choice.
 * Learner moves forward if the responses are correct but is diverted or branched to one or more remedial frames if he does not gives correct response
 * Frame explains the matter afresh when the response is not correct. The frames elicit the respondent to give right answer and reveals his previous mistake. Learner then returns to previous frame
 * The cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional material at his own pace
 * Branching programming contains multiple choice of items where the learner selects responses whereas in linear programming responses are constructed.
 * Assumptions of branching programing
 * Learning takes place better if subject matter is presented in totality
 * Learning is better if subject matter is presented in form of meaning full components or units
 * Wrong answers do not necessarily hinder the learning of correct answer
 * Multiple choice item help more in learning process
 * Based on the possibility of detecting and correcting errors
 * Basic learning takes place during the learners’ exposure to the new material.
 * Learning takes place better if the learner is allows to sufficient freedom to take decision for adopting the instruction to his needs.
 * Merits of Branching/ Intrinsic Programming
 * Big size of frame as well as branching minimizes unnecessary repetitions and responses thus reducing the amount of learning time and fatigue
 * The pitfalls and consequences of erroneous logic are usually explained in the remedial frames so that the learner not only gets the correct response but understands why some other responses are not correct.
 * Instead of simple responses it provides alternatives in the form of multiple choices.
 * Through its broad framework branching program provides for more freedom to respond and scope of choosing one’s path of learning according one’s need. Thus it helps in maintaining the interest and initiative of the learner.
 * Branching programming is helpful in development of the power of discrimination of the learner
 * Helps in development of creativity and problem solving
 * Limitations of branching/ intrinsic programming
 * The multiple choice questions provided in this programming may lead to guess work on the part of the learner and he may not understand the subject matter
 * The setting of appropriate multiple choice question is difficult
 * No branching method can provide infinite branching to take care of all possible needs of every student
 * Cost of branching program is high
 * Not suitable for small children
 * Needs revision frequently
 * Difficult to cover entire subject matter
 * Cannot shape behaviour of the individual learner

Development of Programmed  Instructional  Material:

 * Steps in developing programmed instructional material
 * Peter Pipe has suggested following steps:
 * Selection of unit
 * Appropriate assumption about learners entering behaviours
 * Appropriate objectives in behavioural terms
 * Pre-requisites knowledge and skill in behavioural terms
 * Preparing criterion work
 * Developing specific out-line of content to be programmed
 * John P. Decceco
 * Select a unit or topic to be programmed
 * Prepare a content outline
 * Defining objectives in behavioural terms
 * Constructing and administering test of entering behaviour
 * Constructing and administering test of terminal behaviour
 * Practical steps
 * Specify goals of learning-objectives in terms of behavioural outcomes
 * Devise a strategy of learning which would lead them from entering behaviour to terminal behaviour
 * Series of frame stimulus response frames
 * Edit frames for accuracy
 * Empirical tryout
 * Validation and evaluation

Teaching Machines

 * Meaning and definition
 * Teaching machines were originally mechanical devices. They presented educational materials and taught students. They were first invented by Sidney L. Pressey in the mid-1920s.His machine originally administered multiple-choice questions. The machine could be set so it moved on only when the student got the right answer. Tests showed that learning had taken place. This was an example of how knowledge of results causes learning. Much later, Norman Crowder developed the Pressey idea further.
 * B.F. Skinner was responsible for a different type of machine which used his ideas on how learning should be directed with positive reinforcement.Skinner advocated the use of teaching machines for a broad range of students (e.g., preschool aged to adult) and instructional purposes (e.g., reading and music). The instructional potential of the teaching machine stemmed from several factors: it provided automatic, immediate and regular reinforcement without the use of aversive control; the material presented was coherent, yet varied and novel; the pace of learning could be adjusted to suit the individual. As a result, students were interested, attentive, and learned efficiently by producing the desired behavior, "learning by doing".
 * There is extensive experience that both methods worked well, and so did programmed learning in other forms, such as books.The ideas of teaching machines and programmed learning provided the basis for later ideas such as open learning and computer-assisted instruction.

Computer Assisted Instruction

 * Computer Assisted Instruction


 * Terminology

Use of computer in education is referred by many names such as
 * Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
 * Computer Aided Instruction (CAI)
 * Computer Assisted Learning (CAL)
 * Computer Based Education (CBE)
 * Computer Based Instruction (CBI)
 * Computer Enriched Instruction (CEI)
 * Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)


 * New Terminology
 * Web Based Training
 * Web Based Learning
 * Web Based Instruction

Computer-based education (CBE) and computer-based instruction (CBI) are the broadest terms and can refer to virtually any kind of computer use in educational settings. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) Computer Aided Instruction (CAI) is a narrower term and most often refers to drill-and-practice, tutorial, or simulation activities. Computer-managed instruction (CMI) Computer-managed instruction is an instructional strategy whereby the computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress tracking, and assessment of learner performance. Computer based tools and applications are used to assist the teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process.


 * Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI)
 * A self-learning technique, usually offline/online, involving interaction of the student with programmed instructional materials.
 * Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional material and monitor the learning that takes place.
 * CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the learning process. The computer has many purposes in the classroom, and it can be utilized to help a student in all areas of the curriculum.
 * CAI refers to the use of the computer as a tool to facilitate and improve instruction. CAI programs use tutorials, drill and practice, simulation, and problem solving approaches to present topics, and they test the student's understanding.


 * Typical CAI provides
 * text or multimedia content
 * multiple-choice questions
 * problems
 * immediate feedback
 * notes on incorrect responses
 * summarizes students' performance
 * exercises for practice
 * Worksheets and tests.


 * Types of Computer Assisted Instruction
 * Drill-and-practice Drill and practice provide opportunities or students to repeatedly practice the skills that have previously been presented and that further practice is necessary for mastery.


 * Tutorial Tutorial activity includes both the presentation of information and its extension into different forms of work, including drill and practice, games and simulation.
 * Games Game software often creates a contest to achieve the highest score and either beat others or beat the computer.
 * Simulation Simulation software can provide an approximation of reality that does not require the expense of real life or its risks.
 * Discovery Discovery approach provides a large database of information specific to a course or content area and challenges the learner to analyze, compare, infer and evaluate based on their explorations of the data.
 * Problem Solving This approach helps children develop specific problem solving skills and strategies.


 * Advantages of CAI
 * one-to-one interaction
 * great motivator
 * freedom to experiment with different options
 * instantaneous response/immediate feedback to the answers elicited
 * Self pacing - allow students to proceed at their own pace
 * Helps teacher can devote more time to individual students
 * Privacy helps the shy and slow learner to learns
 * Individual attention
 * learn more and more rapidly
 * multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory approach
 * self directed learning – students can decide when, where, and what to learn


 * Limitations of CAI
 * may feel overwhelmed by the information and resources available
 * over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content
 * learning becomes too mechanical
 * non availability of good CAI packages
 * lack of infrastructure

Definition of Multimedia
Multimedia is the media that uses multiple forms of information content and information processing (e.g. text, audio, graphics, animation, video, interactivity) to inform or entertain the user. Multimedia also refers to the use of electronic media to store and experience multimedia content. Multimedia is similar to traditional mixed media in fine art, but with a broader scope. The term "rich media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia.


 * Multi: more than one
 * Medium (singular): middle, intermediary, mean
 * Media (plural): means for conveying information
 * Media in the press, newspaper, radio and TV context - mass media
 * Media in communications: cables, satellite, network – transmission media
 * Media in computer storage: floppy, CD, DVD, HD, USB – storage media
 * Media in HCI context: text, image, audio, video, CG – interaction media

Computer-based techniques of text, images, audio, video, graphics, animation,and any other medium where every type of information can be represented, processed, stored, transmitted, produced and presented digitally.

This course focus -> Audio and Video

Need of Multimedia
The categories of multimedia needs and uses can be distinguished into four categories, such as informational needs, illustration, entertainment, and download.

First, participants tend to search for multimedia, especially image and video, for informational needs. Participants needed to acquire information from the images and videos. Moreover, as participants were inquisitive about things,they needed to examine them through multimedia resources.

“…I need to check out the amusement park before we go there… I just wanted to see what it looks like first…”1(image searching)

“…I needed to know the atmosphere of the discussion competition I was preparing…”(video searching)

“…I wanted to see his pictures because everybody talked about him…”(image searching)

Second, illustrational needs were found particularly inimage searching contexts. Participants expressed their needs to search appropriate images which would be able todemonstrate the concept.

“…I had to present the topic of melformin in class, so I needed to have images showing it well…” (image searching)

Third, participants were likely to search multimedia resources for entertainment needs in terms of image, audio and video respectively.

“…I needed to see him because he is my favorite actor…” (image searching)

“…I wanted to listen to this music…it came out recently…”(audio searching)

“…(on YouTube) I just clicked this because I wanted to listen to this music…”(video searching)

Fourth, it was found that when participants tended to own multimedia resources for entertainment needs, they expressed their queries with file extensions such as song title mp3.

“…I wanted to own the song file, so I just typed in the title of song and mp3. Then usually, personal blogs contain those files without any copyright restrictions…” (audio searching)

Multimedia is very good for


 * showing what things look like, how they move and how they change
 * keeping an audience's interest,
 * establishing personal contact
 * establishing the identity and academic credibility of a speaker
 * communicating the speaker's enthusiasm for the subject Moving pictures are excellent for showing how things change or how something is done, for establishing a context for information (such as a landscape or a working environment) to make it easier for an audience to relate to what you are saying.

In education Multimedia is useful for:
 * recorded or broadcast lectures
 * bringing in an expert speaker from a distant location
 * demonstrating processes that learners may not otherwise have the opportunity to see (such as a rare surgical technique)
 * demonstrating techniques that learners will have to try themselves later (such as setting up laboratory equipment)
 * recording students' performances to enable feedback and promote reflection
 * bringing the real world into the classroom

For research Multimedia is useful for:


 * dissemination of results through:
 * recorded or broadcast conference presentations and discussions
 * demonstrating new techniques to colleagues,
 * publicising and promoting research outcomes to related professionals and to the general public and for capturing data - such as focus groups, interviews, behavioural observations.

Some ways of using video and audio to support research:

An interview: It is common practice to make an audio recording of research interviews. This makes it possible to transcribe the interview at a later time and keep an exact record of what was said. A video recording of the interview will help you identify who is speaking (for group interviews) and show you their body language, which will tell you a lot about how strongly your subjects feel about what they are saying, how confident they feel about it, and how honest they are being.

An observation: If your research aim is to collect evidence of particular procedures and practices, or to find out which procedures are most effective, then making a video recording can be a powerful way to do this. This is a common technique used in educational research where films are made of interactions in the classroom. However it could equally be used to observe farming or food handling techniques.

Action research: If your research aims to involve your subject actively in your research, then what better way than to get them to make a video recording of their work. For example if you are trying to find out how something is typically done in your area, you could video practioners as they do it and describe what they are doing it. Or better still you could give them a camera and ask them to film what they are doing themselves.

A public information film: Video is probably the most powerful way of communicating to the people who will be affected by your research. It is not so good for presenting dense, factual material, but is by far the best way to demonstrate or explain something that is happening in the world, particularly if you are using a case study approach.

Follow the link below to see an example:

http://nieer.org/resources/video/GL3high.asx

Creating video/audio teaching material can be quick to do, especially if it uses a recording of an event that is already taking place. However there are 2 main difficulties with using multimedia:
 * it is relatively complex technically


 * it involves large amounts of data, and so needs fast, powerful computers with a lot of storage capacity and fast networks for transmitting.

Importance of Multimedia
Digital audio/video is revolutionizing music, film, game, and video & audio industries


 * Convergence of computers, telecommunication, radio, and TV
 * Caused by technology and competition
 * Dramatic changes in products and infrastructure
 * New application potential
 * Huge potential markets
 * Improving our lives (learning, entertainment, and work)
 * Interesting technical issues

There are a number of fields where multimedia could be of use:


 * Business
 * Education
 * Entertainment
 * Home
 * Public Place

Business

use and application


 * Sales/Marketing Presentation
 * Trade show production
 * Staff Training Application
 * Company Kiosk

Education

use and application


 * Courseware/Simulations
 * E-Learning/Distance Learning
 * information Searching

Entertainment

use and application


 * Games(Leisure/Educational)
 * Movies
 * Video on Demand
 * Online

Home

use and application


 * Television
 * Satellite TV
 * SMS services (chat, voting, reality TV)

Public Place

use and application


 * Information Kiosk
 * Smart Cards, Security

we all are living in the world of media and in the future world everything will be based on multimedia.


 * Multimedia instructional design: planning, process, content structure and sequence, media specification
 * Multimedia and learning theory, multimedia in teaching and learning, and multimedia distribution system
 * E-content: Design and development, Learning objects and their characteristics, Standards and specifications, Advantages of learning objects
 * Using and contributing in Online Resources
 * http://nroer.gov.in/
 * http://slideshare.net/
 * https://www.scribd.com/
 * https://www.youtube.com/

Unit IV: Internet as a Learning Resource

 * Internet Terminology: WWW, Browsers, Search Engines, etc.
 * Internet: Needed Hardware and Software, Types of networking
 * Browsing the internet, Locating internet resources - navigating, searching, selecting, evaluating, saving and bookmarking, IP and proxy address
 * Email, Newsgroups and mailing lists, discussion forums, Social Networking Sites
 * Some exemplar websites: Lesson plans for classrooms, Help from experts, Contents in curricular subjects, Educational projects, Simulation of experiments, Milestones on any topic, Online courses/banking, miscellaneous
 * Computer Security: Cracking, Hacking, virus, spy ware, misuse, abuse, antivirus, firewall, and safe practices

=The Internet:= The Internet, the web, cyberspace, and the net are all terms that generally mean the same; in this case, we will call it the internet. The internet is a network of computers, all over the world, interconnected to each other and available to any individual. The internet is used for many different activities including shopping, communicating, learning and distributing information. computers are a primary tool one will utilize to use the internet. One can have access to Internet through computers. sometimes the Internet is best described in comparison to a library. The Internet is made up of many individual components, just like a library is made up of many books. The Internet's components have even been more individual parts, just like a book has pages.

=Internet Terminology=
 * Browser: A software program that allows Internet documents (like webpages) to be viewed, also called a Web Browser.
 * Cyberspace: The world of computer networks.
 * Domain Name: A unique name that identifies a specific computer on the Internet.
 * Download: A term for transferring software or other files from one computer to another.
 * Email: Electronic Mail- Messages sent from one specific user to another using the Internet.
 * Email address: The way a specific user is identified so that they may receive email. An email address can be identified by the "@"sign. E.g., Support@seniorconnects.org
 * Home Page: The first page of a Website, similar to a table of contents.
 * HTML: HyperText Markup Language- A computer language used to make hypertext documents that are sent via the world Wide Web and viewed using a Browser.
 * HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol- The way that Hypertext documents are transferred over the Internet.
 * Hypertext: A way of presenting	information that allows words, pictures, sounds, and actions to be inter-­‐linked so that	 you may	 jump	between them however you choose.
 * Link: A word, phrase, or image that allows you to jump to another document on the World Wide Web.
 * Search Engine: A website that indexes and allows searching of information gathered from the Internet. Google is an example of this. E.g.,www.google.com
 * URL: Uniform Resource Locator-	The entire address for a piece of information of the Internet.
 * Webpage: A hypertext document available on the World Wide Web.
 * Website: A collection	of webpages.
 * World Wide Web: A collection of resources available on the Internet using a web browser.

=Network=
 * A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications.The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

=Different Types of Networks=
 * Depending upon the geographical area covered by a network, it is classified as:
 * Local Area Network (LAN)
 * Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 * Wide Area Network (WAN)
 * Personal Area Network (PAN)

=Local Area Network (LAN)=
 * A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an office building or home.
 * LANs enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed by multiple users. It is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile.
 * Is fast, with speeds from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps.
 * Requires little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device.
 * Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s.
 * LAN’s can be either wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fibre optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s.
 * Every LAN uses a protocol –a set of rules that governs how packets are configured and transmitted.
 * Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include: – Bus – Ring – Star
 * LANs are capable of very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s).

=Advantages of LAN=
 * Speed
 * Cost
 * Security
 * E-mail
 * Resource Sharing

=Disadvantages of LAN=
 * Expensive To Install
 * Requires Administrative Time
 * File Server May Fail
 * Cables May Break

=Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)=
 * A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus.
 * A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities.
 * A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations.
 * A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources.
 * A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
 * Examples of MAN: Telephone company network that provides a high speed DSL to customers and cable TV network.

=Wide Area Network (WAN)=
 * WAN covers a large geographic area such as country, continent or even whole of the world.
 * A WAN is two or more LANs connected together. The LANs can be many miles apart.
 * To cover great distances, WANs may transmit data over leased high-speed phone lines or wireless links such as satellites.
 * Multiple LANs can be connected together using devices such as bridges, routers, or gateways, which enable them to share data.
 * The world's most popular WAN is the Internet.

=Personal Area Network (PAN)=
 * A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of around a few meters within a room.
 * It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network such as the internet.
 * PAN’s can be wired or wireless.
 * A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants, in proximity to an individual's body.
 * The devices may or may not belong to the person in question. The reach of a PAN is typically a few meters.

Unit V: Technology Integration: Policies, Promises, Challenges and Trends

 * Policies
 * [| International Scenario- UNESCO transforming Education: The power of ICT Policies, ICT policies and Practices- Case Studies from European and Asian Countries]
 * [| National Scenario- MHRD‘s National Policy on ICT],[| ICT in CABE Report], National Curriculum Framework-2005 and ICT, National knowledge Network
 * Global ICT Policies and Strategies and Indian Perspective
 * Promising Trends
 * Increased online access and connectivity
 * Mobile access- ubiquitous computing
 * Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
 * Convergence of Hardware and software
 * Technological sophistication and affordability
 * Digital assistive technology
 * Challenges
 * Equity issues and the digital divide
 * Social, ethical, and security issues
 * Limitations of technology integration: A critical look at the impact of technology integration
 * Technology dependence and learner autonomy
 * Capacity Building of Teachers and other Stakeholders
 * Availability of Digital Resources o Development and Sharing of Digital Resources
 * Policy Coherence in the Application of ICT for Education
 * Financing and Sustainability
 * Current and Future Trends
 * Emerging role for augmented and virtual reality in education
 * Learning analytics and education
 * Personalised learning spaces
 * Digital badging and games
 * BYOD and digital citizenship
 * 3D printing and its educational application

NCF2005 and ICT
National Curriculum Framework-2005 and ICT, National knowledge Network http://nkn.in/ Global ICT Policies and Strategies and Indian Perspective http://ptlb.in/iips/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access

Equity issues and the digital divide

Digital badging and games Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)

Promising Trends
Global ICT Policies and Strategies and Indian Perspective http://ptlb.in/iips/

http://www.unevoc.unesco.org/fileadmin/up/emergingtrendsinictforeducationandtraining.pdf

http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2015/02/13-digital-divide-developing-world-west/west_internet-access.pdf Policy Coherence in the Application of ICT for Education

http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/resource/InfodevDocuments_1031.pdf

Digital assistive technology

Capacity Building of Teachers and other Stakeholders