User:JessiCadengo/literature

Introduction
Teaching and learning a foreign language is not an easy task. Teachers do not have to be talking in each one of their classes and that teaching is characterized by the active teacher talk with the class or individually. Students do not only learn by having the teachers providing “comprehensible input”, they also learn from their own output. This does not necessarily mean that the students have to talk the whole class and that a perfect lesson is when students practice and produce the language, but when both teachers and students participate in the teaching/learning process. All lessons have to be carefully prepared taking into consideration students’ learning styles. Teaching methods are essential when preparing a class because they are the basis of the lesson. In these lessons teachers have to use their talking time to provide feedback in a formal and informal way about the students’ performance.

Teaching techniques and learning strategies are tools that can be used for having the students learn a foreign language by producing it. Implementing the appropriate teaching methods help teachers have a better control of Teacher Talking Time because it influences students’ learning of a foreign language. Teaching techniques and learning strategies help the development of EFL because learning strategies help students have a better performance within the English as Foreign Language classroom. Teachers have to be careful when choosing the teaching method to use because they have to take into consideration students’ learning styles. Teacher Talking Time contributes to SLA through a variety of ways such as the Input theory by Krashen and the Output hypothesis by Swain. This enables teachers provide the appropriate input in order to make students provide the suitable output.

Teacher Talking Time (TTT) Influences Students' Learning of a Foreign Language
The main way of interaction that the teacher uses in the classroom is called teacher talk (TT). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines teacher talk as “that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of foreigner talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners” (Richards, 1992). Teacher talking time (TTT) is a key aspect in students’ learning. When too much teacher talk exists, teachers do not give learners the opportunity of using the language, thus this influences students' learning.

When the teacher speaks a lot in the classroom, students are not able to produce language. The goal of the teachers’ communication is to develop the language proficiency in their students, so they have to use their teacher talk for conducting instructions, cultivating their intellectual ability and managing classroom activities (Feng Qican, 1999). Students learning English as foreign language (EFL) have the classroom as the main place where they are exposed directly to the language. Doing so, teachers promote communication among the students; as a result they have more opportunity to practice the language and learn what they are supposed to.

Learning a foreign language does not exist without teaching, so teacher talk has a vital role in language learning. Some researchers have argued the linkage between teacher talk and language learning. As Nunan (1991) states: “Teacher talk is of crucial importance, not only for the organization of the classroom but also for the processes of acquisition. It is important for the organization and management of the classroom because it is through language that teachers either succeed or fail in implementing their teaching plans”. Talking about learning, TT may be the main input source the students receive. But this does not mean that it is the only way students receive input in their classes.

Teachers have to provide input in a variety of ways. Nowadays teachers count with several materials they can use in their EFL classrooms such as authentic and non-authentic materials and Information, Communication and Technologies (ICT’s). Authentic materials are an interesting way to provide input to students. Nuttall (1996) indicates that “Authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real-life purposes by real people.” This emphasizes the importance of the use of different materials for teaching, which gives students non-spoken input. Authentic materials are not only newspaper and magazine articles; they also are songs, web pages, radio and TV broadcasts, films, leaflets, flyers, posters, and anything that is written in the target language. In order to use the different sources teachers have, they have to take into consideration students’ learning styles.

Each student has his own learning style. Teachers have to be aware of the different ways their students learn. Information processing, personality patterns, and social interaction are the general categories within learning styles (Conner, 2004). Within the processing Kolb (1984) includes diverging (feeling and watching), assimilating (watching and thinking), converging (doing and thinking), and accommodating (doing and feeling). Also Gregorc (1985) indicates concrete sequential, abstract random, abstract sequential, and concrete random as learning types. Talking about personality patterns, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator determines likes on four levels derived from Jung's Theory of Psychological Types (Myers & McCaulley, 1985) that students are classified according to their preference as follows: introversion, extroversion, sensing, intuition, thinking, feeling, judging, and perceiving. On the other hand, Keirsey (1998) recognizes the following temperament types: artisans, guardians, idealists, and rationals. In addition, McCarthy (1990) mentions four learning styles: innovative, analytic, common sense, and dynamic. Multiple intelligences are considered part of the personality patters where Gardner's (1985) identifies the next learning styles: visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic. The last category which is social interaction focuses on students’ attitudes, habits, and strategies toward their learning, teachers, and peers. For instance, Reichmann & Grasha (1974) focuses on the following types of students: avoidant, participative, competitive, collaborative, dependent, and independent.

Teaching Methods and Learning Strategies Help the Development of EFL
The methods teachers use for teaching a foreign language and the strategies students use to learn have to be chosen according to students’ needs. Learning strategies are defined as “specifications, behaviors, steps, or techniques, such as seeking out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task, used by students to enhance their own learning” (Scarcella & Oxford, 1992). According to the needs of the students, teachers have to look for those methods that are appropriate for learners; also students have to find the way they learn better. These strategies have to be chosen depending on what fits to the students’ learning style and what the teacher requires. Then, the strategies become a functional tool to regulate learning in an active, conscious, and purposeful way. Learning strategies can be classified in six groups.

The six categories for learning strategies help students learn properly. Cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related, compensatory, affective, and social are the six categories for learning strategies (Oxford, 1990). Cognitive strategies are a simple use of the mind to solve certain problems or achieve any task. Some of the strategies within this group are reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, and practicing structures and sounds. The next group is the metacognitive strategies which are used to manage the learning process. These are identifying own learning style preferences and needs, planning for an L2 task, gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, and evaluating the success of any type of learning strategy. Acronyms, rhyming, pictures, and flashcards are some examples of memory-related strategies which help students match L2 with L1 without a deep understanding. Compensatory strategies are those that let learners build new knowledge. Some examples of this category are guessing from context in listening and reading, using synonyms and “talking around” the missing word to aid speaking and writing, and strictly for speaking, using gestures or pause words. Affective strategies are those that are related to students’ feelings, such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive self talk. The last category refers to the social strategies that make the students understand the language and its culture by working with others. These strategies are asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task, talking with a native-speaking conversation partner, and exploring cultural and social norms. Teachers have to be aware of all their learners’ learning strategies in order to know what teaching method to use.

Teachers have to choose the teaching methods that are appropriate for their class and let students develop their own skills. Teachers come to teacher training with ideas about the teaching/learning process formed from the years they have spent as students themselves (Lortie, 1975). This leads to the significance of appropriate information about what teaching methods they have to use. Different teaching methods help teachers avoid the over use of TT and promote more student talking (ST). One of those is the Direct Method whose purpose is to make students learn how to communicate in the target language learning to think in L2. Another method is Communicative Language Teaching which enables students to communicate in the target language and increases the amount of ST making the teachers have less TT within the EFL classroom. Talking about TTT, methods such as Grammar Translation Method and Desuggestopedia are some of the teaching methods where the teacher is the authority. In the Grammar Translation Method students have to do what the teachers say, so they can learn what they know. In Desuggestopedia learners have to respect the teachers, so they will retain the information that the teachers provide because students trust them.

TTT Contributes to SLA through a Variety of Ways
Even though most of the theories related to second language learning recognize the need for input, they have an enormous difference talking about the importance and role that is associated with it. Ellis (1985) distinguishes three diverse views about the role of input which are the behaviorist, the mentalist, and the interactionist. Behaviorists do not take into account the learners’ mind; that is, the mental process that the learner has, but they consider the input as stimuli and feedback. Here, learners internalize the language by imitating the person who is providing the specific linguistic forms and patterns (input); in addition, this person gives feedback in a way of reinforcement and correction. The next view is the mentalist theories which pay attention to the learners’ “black box”. Students have a previous knowledge about possible types of languages and use the new information (input) to get to the second language. According to the mentalist theories, input is indefinite which means that all languages are huge and do not let learners arrive to all the rules a target language has. The last type of view is the interactionist which refers to two different types of theories. One is the cognitive interactionist theory that establishes that learning is perceived as result of the complex interaction of linguistics and students’ internal devices. The other cognitive interactionist theory is social oriented where verbal interaction plays a vital role for language learning because students produce what they have learned.

Input text and input discourse are two issues that represent the characteristics of input to language learners. According to Ellis (1994), input text addresses what native speakers say or write (TT) and input discourse deals with the particular type of register that teachers use to refer to language learners. The input text (native-speaker usage) makes students assume the language forms rather than attest them. This in found when teachers ask questions; they do not use correct grammatical structures, they just use intonation. Many native-speaker questions in English are also non-inverted, particularly when there is a high presupposition of a “yes” answer (Brook, Schule, and Campbell, 1980 and Williams, 1990). The input discourse (the description of modified input) makes reference to the type of language that is used with the different people around. People talk in a variety of ways depending on the environment and people who they are talking to. When teachers talk to language learners they modify their language too; this register is known as foreigner talk. The foreigner talk is used by native speakers to communicate with non-native speakers. These issues affect teaching input and students output.

Input and output in second language acquisition deal with TTT. “Humans acquire language in only one way – by understanding messages or by receiving 'comprehensible input'… We move from i, our current level, to i + 1, the next level along the natural order, by understanding input containing i + 1” (Krashen, 1985). Comprehensible and appropriate foreign language information is essential for learning; so teachers need to have a suitable TT. Krashen suggests three stages in turning input into intake: first, to understand a second language i + 1 form; second, to notice a space among the second language i + 1 form and the interlanguage that the student manages; and third, the re-emergence of the i + 1 with less frequency. Output in second language acquisition helps students develop fluency, so the practice of the L2 is vital for learning. However, Swain (1995) formulates some claims about that 'practice' function of output not jus increasing the knowledge. Swain suggests three further functions for learner output: “the noticing function or what might be referred to as the consciousness-raising role; the hypothesis-testing function; and the metalinguistic function or what might be referred to as its reflective role”. She believes that the fact of having the students produce language gives them the opportunity to experiment closely with the language. These two hypotheses give clues about the amount of TT that the teacher has to implement in the EFL classroom.

Conclusion
To conclude, teaching techniques and learning strategies are essential for creating a good environment within the English as Foreign Language classroom. This can be achieved by using the appropriate teaching methods in order for not to ever use Teacher Talking Time and developing in the students learning strategies according to their learning styles. This is with the purpose of making the students produce language and elicit the use of Student Talking Time (STT).

Teacher Talking Time (TTT) influences students' learning of a foreign language. Students have to prove that they are really learning, and they can do it by producing the language. If students do not produce the language means that the teaching methods are not appropriate or that the students are not using the best learning strategies. Teaching methods and learning strategies help the development of EFL because they provide the proper environment for learning. Teachers have to be careful when choosing the teaching methods they are going to use because they have to take into account their students’ learning styles. TTT Contributes to Second language Acquisition through a variety of ways such as the Krashen’s input theory and the output hypothesis by Swain. Krashen suggests that “comprehensible input” is necessary in order to make students learn and Swain proposes that output is also essential in order to know if the students are learning.

Reference
Berardo, A. (2006). The use of authentic materials in the teaching of reading. The Reading Matrix. 6, 2004, 60-69 from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/berardo/article.pdf

Chiya, S. (2003). ''The importance of learning styles and learning strategies in EFL teaching in Japan''. Unpublished manuscript. Susaki Technical High School. From http://www.kochinet.ed.jp/koukou/kenkyu/kaigaihaken/chiyafinal.pdf

Ellis, R. (2004). The study of second language acquisition. Input and interaction and second language acquisition (pp. 243-291). New York: Oxford University Press.

Hitotuzi, N. (2005). Teacher talking time in the EFL classroom. Profile issues in teachers’ professional development, 6, 2005, 97-106 from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=169213801009

Mitchel, R. & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories. Input in second language acquisition: Krashen’s “Input hypothesis” (pp. 164-166). Great Britain: Oxford University Press.

Mitchel, R. & Myles, F. (2004). Second language learning theories. Output in second language acquisition (pp. 174-176). Great Britain: Oxford University Press.

Rebecca, L. (2003). Language learning styles and strategies: An overview. Learning Styles & Strategies/Oxford (pp. 1-25). From http://web.ntpu.edu.tw/~language/workshop/read2.pdf

Silver, R. & Kogut, G. (n.d.). Teacher talk, pedagogical talk and classroom activities: another look. Unpublished manuscript. From http://www.eras.org.sg/papers/2-3-11.pdf

TE Editor (2004). Using authentic materials. Retrieved from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/using-authentic-materials

TE Editor (2007). Teacher talking time. Retrieved from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/teacher-talking-time

Warren-Price, T. (2003). Action research investigating the amount of teacher talk in my classroom. Unpublished manuscript, The University of Birmingham. From http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/collegeartslaw/cels/essays/languageteaching/Warren1.pdf

Xiao-yan, M. (2006). Teacher talk and EFL in university classrooms. Unpublished manuscript, School of Foreign Languages and Literature. From http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/thesis_Ma_Xiaou.pdf

Annotated Bibliographies
Hitotuzi, N. (2005). Teacher talking time in the EFL classroom. Profile issues in teachers’ professional development, 6, 2005, 97-106 from http://redalyc.uaemex.mx/src/inicio/ArtPdfRed.jsp?iCve=169213801009

In this article Hitotizi makes reference to the amount of talk produced in the second or foreign language classroom (Henceforth, L2 classroom). He offers feedback on the teaching approach a teacher is having. The aim of this research is to support the hypothesis about teacher-centered and learner-centered approaches that can be applied in the second or foreign language classroom. The participants involved in this research are the teacher of a BA in Liberal Arts from the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) and his students. This article is useful because it illustrates me about the procedure to make a research. The conclusions are that even though the teacher talked most of the time, the lessons were centered on students. This article illuminates my way of conducting my paper because it is based on a real context which makes my ideas be clear.

Warren-Price, T. (2003). Action research investigating the amount of teacher talk in my classroom. Unpublished manuscript, The University of Birmingham. From http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/Documents/collegeartslaw/cels/essays/languageteaching/Warren1.pdf

This action research conducted by Warren-Price has the purpose of being aware about the percentage of Teacher Talking Time in order to make changes on his explanations and instructions. The participants are thirteen 16-year-old girls in their fourth academic year of EFL from a Japanese private high school class. This research is useful for my topic because I would like to focus on Teacher Talking Time within the EFL classroom. The findings show that the teacher should be more prepared and to reduce explanations when students get familiarized with contents. Warren-Price makes reference of the importance that assessing oneself has, so I would like to focus on my problem that is my TTT.

TE Editor (2007). Teacher talking time. Retrieved from http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/teacher-talking-time

This information makes reference to EFL classes that have to be centered on the students. This article has the importance and strategies for reducing TTT and positive uses; for example that students just have a passive role within the classroom. I find this document useful because I could notice advantages and disadvantages within the ESL classroom and some strategies to make students talk more and to notice that they are getting the ideas. This document will not delimitate my own research because I would like to go beyond of giving strategies to reduce TTT and to talk about advantages and disadvantages.

Xiao-yan, M. (2006). Teacher talk and EFL in university classrooms. Unpublished manuscript, School of Foreign Languages and Literature. From http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/thesis_Ma_Xiaou.pdf

In this article Xiao-yan focuses on the impact that Teacher Talking Time has in EFL classrooms. He argues that the terms of students and foreign language learning have not been studied. The research methods are an investigation among the students and a case study for teachers. The participants are four teachers aged from 29 to 50 from Chongqing Normal University; they teach juniors and sophomores intensive reading respectively in Foreign Language School. Eighty students who were studying in the four subject teachers’ classes are also part of the research. This article is helpful for my research because the author talks about the impact of TTT on students’ learning and that is exactly what I would like to investigate deeply. The research just covers three aspects of TTT and some students: for instance it is difficult to know exactly what really happens in EFL classrooms. The conclusions are that teachers should provide more opportunities to communicate and optimal input. This work illuminates my topic because I want to talk about this, so this is a template about how I can organize my research.

Feedback

 * Word count 697 and you need approximately 2,500 word in total. Add your conclusion (250 words), introduction (250), and at least 10 references, alphabetized and the same references included in your annotated bibliography.  Work on your introduction, making sure that you state a problem in the first paragraph and that you include a thesis statement in your second paragraph that links to your problem.  The reasons section of your thesis statement will be your topics you cover in each of the three sections of your literature review.  Click here to see some helpful videos.  Link your conclusion to your thesis statement and summarize the main points that you've previously discussed. Remember not to include any new information in your conclusion. Also, discuss future implications and ideas for further research related to your topic.
 * Your first two headings look fine. Perhaps your third heading could say something like, "TTT contributes to SLA through a variety a ways". --Bnleez 11:43, 10 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Avoid words in all uppercase lettering, even headings. Also, you need at least 10 references (3-3-4) of each type: web pages, articles, and books. --Bnleez 13:14, 19 October 2011 (UTC)