User:Adriana/literature

Translation mistakes committed by translators
In the whole world, a huge amount of countries exist, and each one of them has different characteristics. Each country has their own language, and some of them have more than one language. Countries have texts containing information about different topics. If a text performs an important role in a certain area, people speaking a different language can be interested on knowing more about such text. In order to share information, people knowing a target and a source language are able to take any information from the source language into the target one. Nowadays, transmitting and sharing information about any topic among countries is possible because of a method.

Translation is the process of reflecting what a text says into other language. Translated texts should illustrate the same meaning as the original text in order to be reliable and useful. In order to fulfill this idea, translators have to avoid different types of problems, so they can transmit adequate ideas. As a consequence, translation is not an easy procedure because it involves more than just using a dictionary in order to look for the translation of a word. As a consequence, translators have an important responsibility when translating. If their abilities are weak, the translation will lack quality and so the translated information will not reflect the same meaning as the original text. A translation is affected in different areas: pragmatics, syntax and semantics. Most mistakes are caused because of lack of language and culture knowledge. In order to solve these problems, translators have to take advantage of different tools for the process.

Good translations depend on avoiding pragmatic, syntactic and semantic problems.
Pragmatics performs an important role in translated texts because of the misinterpretations of language in use. Languages are constituted by different aspects like grammar, vocabulary and so on; however, it is used by people in specific contexts in different ways. When translators do not know the way in which a language is applied in real contexts, they tend to make mistakes when translating. Most errors are committed when translating idioms and slangs. According to Translation schools (2005), translators have problems with idioms, neologisms (new words), and slang that are difficult to understand. Some idiomatic expressions do not have an equivalent word in all languages; with this type of errors, the translated texts do not express a useful and coherent message to the target audience.

Another area is syntax, its role in translated texts is related to following the rules that govern each language. When the knowledge of a language is poor, it is common to give an inadequate order to certain words like nouns, verbs, adjectives. Also, subject-verb agreement mistakes are made by translators. According to Al-Jarf (2000), common errors in translations are related to the area of number and gender agreement such mistakes gave low quality to the translated texts. The order of the words in the languages is an aspect that affects translation quality. In English, in phrases like “the black car”, the adjective comes before the noun; in contrast, in Spanish, the adjective comes after the noun “el carro negro”. So, the grammar of the target and source languages have to be respected in order to translate adequately and to avoid mistakes. In order to respect the grammar of the languages involved in the translation process, the translator has to find a balance among them. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (n.d.) explains that “These errors are produced when the translator is faithful to the syntax of the source language” (Syntax / Grammar Errors, para.1).

Finally, semantics works as the meaning of individual words in translated texts. As a consequence, translators have to be careful when transferring words from one language into another. A word can have different meanings, so identifying the word that best expresses the original idea of a text requires full attention. Some words do not have an equivalent in other languages; translators face this problem in different texts. According to Baker (1992), something very difficult for translators is to perceive the meaning of the words, so other readers can understand what it is in the translated text. The meaning of words represents an important issue in the translation process; a common problem is non-equivalence. Some words are just used in a specific language; as a result, finding an adequate word in a target language becomes a difficult process for translators. Words like ambulatte do not have an equivalent in Spanish, so when a text contains this word, the translation process is affected. Baker (1992) explains that some problems of non-equivalence are terms not known in a target culture, terms with a known concept but without an equivalent, words with long and complex equivalents, and so on. The meaning of a word affects translations in different ways; translators have to be careful when identifying their meanings and when choosing their equivalents.

Cultural and language aspects cause problems when translating.
Translators have to have enough knowledge in order to avoid problems when translating. Areas like pragmatics, semantics and syntactic affect the quality of the translated text. The background knowledge that the translator has about the target and source language causes different translation mistakes. Moreover, it covers areas like grammar rules, meanings of words, formal and informal vocabulary, language in use and so on. All this areas are classified into culture and language knowledge. Culture knowledge covers aspects like use of idiomatic expressions, neologisms and so on; in contrast, language knowledge deals with grammar rules, parts of speech and so on.

Language knowledge performs an important role in the translation process. Language is composed by vocabulary, grammar rules, meaning, context, and different aspects that are intertwined. According to Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (n.d.), language is composed by different linguistics levels: Lexical, Morphological, Syntactic, Semantic and Pragmatic. As language covers all these variety of areas, the person in charge of a translation takes into account them. However, when aspects like grammar rules and vocabulary are not taken into account, different mistakes influence the translated text.

Grammatical rules that are different in most languages affect the quality of any translated text. Piron (n.d.) says that professional translators make mistakes because some structures are impossible to translate. In this case, the translator or the grammatical rules of the languages involved causes different mistakes through a translated text. As some tenses do not have an accurate equivalent in other languages, some sentences looses their original transmitted message or idea. So, if the translator finds out appropriate grammatical equivalents, no mistakes will be found.

Parts of speech have an important role in the grammar knowledge. Phu (2005) states that the omission and repetition of nouns represent some common translation mistakes. Some common mistakes are related to plural and singular nouns, verbs endings, irregular forms of verbs and nouns, and so on. When translators do not know the way in which the parts of speech are used in the languages involved in the translation, the translated text looses its original sense and it does not transmit clear and coherent ideas.

Vocabulary knowledge performs an essential part of the translation process. According to Piron (n.d.), “An enormous amount of words, many of them appearing constantly in ordinary texts, present us with similar difficulties” (Semantics, para.11). Vocabulary involves not just knowledge of a huge variety of words. Besides, it includes context, formality, equivalents, words with more than one meaning, connotations and so on. Translation does not just require the knowledge of a vast lexis, but the knowledge of different aspects involved in just one simple word.

Cultural covers knowledge of idioms, slang, sayings and neologisms that are part of the culture people have all over the world. As all the cultures are different, these types of expressions are not equivalent. According to Mohammad and Ahmad (2011), “translation is a kind of activity which inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions” (p.104). Translators face not just one culture in the translation process, but at least three. As a consequence, some words might be difficult to translate because of the contexts of the people related to a certain text. Lonsdale (1996) says that multiple contexts influence translation: the contexts of the author, reader and translator. Translators have to be aware of the characteristics of a text in order to translate adequately by taking into account cultural aspects.

Translators with less knowledge about the context of a text tend to make more mistakes. Such errors are commonly found when translating jokes, idioms, sayings, and so on. Lonsdale (1996) suggests different types of contexts taken into account in the translation process: the situational context refers to location, place, and events and so on; the verbal context refers to appropriate meanings in the text; and the cognitive context is related to all the information collected from the text in the process. All these contexts have an important role because they help the translator to identify the characteristics of a text. Also, different mistakes are avoided because the translators are aware of aspects like time, place, past events, use of language, and so on.

Translating techniques prevent pragmatic, syntactic and semantic mistakes in translations.
The translation process requires the use of different techniques in order to prevent mistakes. There is a wide variety of translation techniques available for the translators. However, there is not an established list of specific techniques to apply. As Baker (1992) says, “discover more strategies and learn to asses the advantages and disadvantages of using each strategy” (p.42). Translators have to look for different techniques and to apply them, so they will develop their own or they will identify the techniques that work the best in their own translation style.

Translation techniques, like borrowing, calque and modulation, help the translator in the process of transferring a text into another language. However, some professional translators do not agree with this idea. According to Lonsdale (1996), translators do not have a list of techniques that will make them skill translators; each translator develops a specific translation style. On the other hand, such techniques benefit in a certain way by making easier the translation of a text.

Some common accepted translation techniques function as an important tool for translators. According to Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010) such techniques are Borrowing, Calque, Literal Translation, Transposition, Modulation, Reformulation, Adaptation and Compensation. Also, Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet (as cited in Venuti, 2000, p. 84-93), suggests just seven of these techniques by omitting compensation. Each of these techniques helps in different areas, so translation mistakes do not affect the quality of the translated text. By applying these techniques, some problems faced in the translation process do not cause low quality in a translation because it will not contain mistakes.

Modulation, reformulation and adaptation help to avoid mistakes in the area of pragmatics. According to Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010), modulation is “using a phrase that is different in the source and target languages to convey the same idea” (Modulation, para.1). Vinay and Darbelnet say that another technique is reformulation or equivalence that is to look for an equivalent expression that is totally different in the source and target language (as cited in Venuti, 2000, p. 84-93). Finally, adaptation is the technique in which, according to Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010), “something specific to the source language culture is expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to the target language culture” (Adaptation, para.1). So, by applying these techniques, different mistakes will not affect the translation of idioms, slangs, sayings, jokes, slogans and so on.

Calque, literal translation and transposition support translators in order to avoid problems related to syntax. According to Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet (as cited in Venuti, 2000, p. 84-93), Calque is to translate an expression word by word and Literal Translation is to translate word by word. These two techniques do not guarantee that mistakes will be avoided, but they support the translation process. Finally, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010) suggests that Transposition is looking for an adequate tense in the target language equivalent to the tense in the source language. This technique develops an important role because grammatical rules of the source and target languages are followed and respected when translating.

Borrowing and compensation are two techniques that help in the area of semantics. According to Vinay and Darbelnet (as cited in Venuti, 2000, p. 84-93 the main idea about borrowing is that “in order to introduce the flavour of the source language (SL) culture into a translation, foreign terms may be used” (p.85). For example, words like software, hardware, cool and so on. Another techniques is compensation; Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010) states that compensation “can be used where something cannot be translated from source to target language, and the meaning that is lost in the immediate translation is expressed somewhere else in the translated text” (Compensation, para.1). These two strategies cover areas like non-equivalence and meaning of the words. By applying them, the translator will be able to translate words with difficult meanings and words without equivalence in the target language.

As there is a wide variety of techniques, different authors suggest the ones that work appropriately for them. Mona Baker suggests different techniques according to certain areas. For aspects like equivalence, Baker (1992) suggests techniques like using general, related or loan words, substituting, omitting or adding words and explanations, and adding illustrations. These strategies add helpful elements like images that facilitate the visualization of certain terms, and so a mistake in a term will be omitted. Other techniques suggested by Baker are related to idioms. A wide variety of techniques performs an important role in the translation process because they support the translation process in order to avoid mistakes. The use of such techniques depends on the style of each translator, and the main objective of translating a text appropriately.

Conclusion
Translation is a process that requires a skilled translator with different knowledge not only about translation. This is because the translation process is not just transferring words from one language into another. As Piron(n.d.) says, the task of the translator is not easy, just arduous; a translator is a detective that had to look for as much information as possible in order to transmit reliable information. Different areas like pragmatics, syntax and semantics influence translation. Culture and language aspects cause mistakes in each of the mentioned areas when translating because the translator lacks knowledge of grammar, vocabulary, culture, context and so on. In order to avoid mistakes, it is important for any translator to support their task with translation techniques that serve as a guide for translators. Some of those techniques are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, reformulation, adaptation and compensation.

An implication of this topic is that it might be difficult to apply a long research in order to see progress because of time. Further research related to this topic can bring new information about new translation techniques or the success of the ones already mentioned. Additionally, it might be interesting to identify useful techniques for specific areas like pragmatics. Another aspect to research about is the process that the translator has to follow in order to identify the techniques that work the best for them. Translation styles might be an interesting topic because there is not information about them.

Annotated bibliography
Al-Jarf, R. (2000). Grammatical agreement errors in L1/L2 translations. IRAL, 38(1), 1-15.

In this article Al-Jarf reviews students’ grammatical agreement errors made in translations from a source to a target language. The author got the data from translation projects of 9 translation students from the College of Languages and Translation in the King Saud University, Saudi Arabia by identifying the common errors regarding grammatical agreement. The research is focused on graduating seniors majoring in translation in Saudi Arabia who require developing a translation project in order to get the Bachelor of Arts degree in Translation. This research is important in the field of translation because people involved in this area can be aware of common errors when translating, and so they can be able to improve their translated texts. The main findings of this research is that the students showed weaknesses in the areas of number and gender agreement, they are not applying adequate strategies in order to translate, and they are not able to identify such mistakes easily. This article will perform an important but no essential part of my research; it contains useful information regarding grammar errors when translating.

Baker, M. (1992). In other words: a course book of translation. London and New York: Routledge.

In this book, Baker explains the aspects that have to be taken into account in order to develop an appropriate translation. The main objective of this book is helping translators develop abilities on translation by reflecting on their own processes followed when translating texts. This book is very important for translators because it examines areas related to equivalence, grammar, cohesion, pragmatics, and so on. This book will form the basis of my research because it contains essential information to know in order to be able to identify mistakes in translations. Also, it suggests different exercises and strategies that can be useful in order to avoid such mistakes.

Lonsdale, A. (1996). Teaching translation from Spanish to English: worlds beyond words. Canada: University of Ottawa Press.

In this book, Losdale give details about the process that has to be followed in order to translate from Spanish to English. The main aims of this book are to prevent errors when translating and to provide information about the process of translating texts appropriately from one language into another. This book is an important tool in the field of translation since it presents theory about translation like context, competence, and so on. Also, it manages different examples in order to explain the contents. This book will support my research by providing theory about translation and by supplying translation exercises categorized by topic.

Mohammad, A. and Ahmad, F. (2011). Misinterpretation of English Cultural Bound Expressions. Retrieved from The International Journal of Language Society and Culture.

In this article Mohammad and Ahmand review the errors made when translating cultural expressions from one language into another. The authors use data gained through applying a culture-based translation test twice to English language students from the Universities of Tabuk and Taif in Saudi Arabia in order to identify the cultural expressions that are not translated appropriately. Their researcher is focused on Saudi university English majors that were expected to show poor knowledge of cultural expressions. The article is useful to the field of translation, it shows information that should be taken into account when translation information from one language into another. The main limitation of the article is that some students did not answer the test. The main conclusions are that the culture of the target and source language are an important aspect when translating and that every lexical item should be considered in this process because of the meaning that is carried. The article is useful to my research topic because it shows that translating problems can be caused because of lack of knowledge about cultural aspects.

Phu, Ph. (2005). Errors in the translation of topic-comment structures of vietnamese into english. Asian EFL journal, 7(3), 1-24.

In this article Phu reviews the common errors made by Vietnamese students when translating from their mother tongue into Spanish. The data of this article was gained through the analysis of a 250-word translated text made by four groups of 95 students from the Department of English and Literature of the university of Social Sciences and Humanities in Vietnam in order to identify the common errors they have. The research is focused on identifying errors related to nouns that do not coincide with the sentences and the causes of these errors. The article is an important tool for translators in order to identify and solve translation problems. The author indicates that some common errors where identified when translating from Vietnamese to English: omission, repetition, inappropriate use of subjects; and that it is possible to solve them by applying some translation strategies. This article will not form the basis of my research, but it contains information about how to identify errors and how to solve them when translating.

Piron, C. (n.d.). Claude Piron. Retrieved from http://claudepiron.free.fr/articlesenanglais/translation.htm

Through this website, Piron reviews information related to the common mistakes made when translating. The main purpose is providing information about the position that translators have to take in order to improve their translation processes. Also, some mistakes related to Grammar and Semantics are presented by suggesting some solutions. This website is helpful for people that translate texts from one language into another because of the topics and suggestions it contains. For my research, this website will form the basis because it can be used in order to compare the results regarding common mistakes, and to suggest about how to face and solve such mistake in order to improve translations.

Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (n.d.) Hablamos juntos. Retrieved from http://www.hablamosjuntos.org/sm/default.common_translation_errors.asp#ve

In this website, Robert Wood Johnson Foundation provides information about the common errors in translation in the areas of : syntax, vocabulary and spelling. The main objective of this website is providing basic information about translation and helping translators identify translation errors in order to correct them. This website is a helpful tool in the field of translation because it helps to analyze and reflect on the quality of translated texts. In my research, this website is not an essential part; however, it provides relevant information about the grammatical, vocabulary and spelling errors that are made when translating and the best way to correct them.

Translation schools (2005). Translation problems. Retrieved from http://www.translationschools.org/translation/process/problems.asp

In this website, exposes different problems faced in the translation process of texts from one language into another. It contains information about problems of ambiguity, structure differences, idiomatic expressions, collocations, grammar, and so on. Moreover, teaching students the process of translation is explain in terms of skills, terminology, syntax, and so on. This website is useful for translators they can find the reason of the mistakes committed when translating, and they can find suggestions of how to teach students the process of translation. In my research, this website plays an important role because of the characteristics and types of errors that are mentioned.

Universitat Rovira i Virgili (2010). Intercultural studies group. Retrieved from http://isg.urv.es/publicity/masters/sample/techniques.html

In this website, the Universitat Rovira i Virgili provides theory about the strategies used in order to translate texts. The strategies mentioned are borrowing, calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, reformulation, adaptation, and so on. The main objective of this website is providing a guide for translators that face certain problems related to vocabulary in texts that are going to be translated. Such strategies are essential for any translator because they help to develop translations with high quality. This website will have an essential part of my research because it contains strategies that will be helpful in order to identify and correct the errors found in translated texts.

Venuti, L. (2000). The translation studies reader. London and New York: Routledge.

In this book, Venuti collects different contributions related to translation studies of different authors. The main aim of this book is to provide theoretical framework about translation in relation to culture and history by presenting different studies. In the field of translation, this book is an essential part because of the compilation of studies about translation; translators can be in touch with a variety of ideas and points of view. In my research, this book plays an important role because of the variety of information that it contains. Also, it provides information of different periods of time, so the evolution of translation aspects will provide a view of its history and its role.

Feedback

 * Link your conclusion to your thesis statement and summarize the main points that you've previously discussed. Remember not to include any new information in your conclusion. Also, discuss future implications and ideas for further research related to your topic. --Bnleez 15:31, 7 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Word count 2,541; Work on your introduction, making sure that you state a problem in the first paragraph and that you include a thesis statement in your second paragraph that links to your problem. The reasons section of your thesis statement will be your topics you cover in each of the three sections of your literature review.  Click here to see some helpful videos. --Bnleez 14:24, 7 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Try to add references as you go along. --Bnleez 13:13, 18 November 2011 (UTC)
 * You are making good progress, keep it up! See my comments above. --Bnleez 13:33, 9 November 2011 (UTC)
 * Good, just check where to use periods according to APA. For example, review website references. --Bnleez 13:00, 19 October 2011 (UTC)